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中西方商务谈判中的沟通失误问题研究

2021-08-30 来源:乌哈旅游
学校代码:10036剧矽}琴季(节贸易声学硕士学位论文中西方商务谈判中的沟通失误问题研究培养单位:英语学院专业名称:外国语言学与应用语言学研究方向:跨文化商务交际作者:严倩指导教师:朱晓姝论文日期.-二。一二年五月MAThesisAStudyofMiscommunicationinSino--WesternBusinessNegotiationsByYanQianAdvisor:Prof.ZhuXiaoshuSchoolofInternationalStudiesUniversity0fInternationalBusinessandEconomicsMay2012学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明:所呈交的学位论文,是本人在导师的指导下,独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外,本论文不含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文所涉及的研究工作做出重要贡献的个人和集体,均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律责任由本人承担。特此声明学位论文作者签名:椭,2012年5月18日学位论文版权使用授权书本人完全了解对外经济贸易大学关于收集、保存、使用学位论文的规定,同意如下各项内容:按照学校要求提交学位论文的印刷本和电子版本;学校有权保存学位论文的印刷本和电子版,并采用影印、缩印、扫描、数字化或其它手段保存论文;学校有权提供目录检索以及提供本学位论文全文或部分的阅览服务;学校有权按照有关规定向国家有关部门或者机构送交论文;在以不以赢利为目的的前提下,学校可以适当复制论文的部分或全部内容用于学术活动。保密的学位论文在解密后遵守此规定。学位论文作者签名:导师签名:了砖2012年5月18日2012年5月18日原书为不缺内容白页ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIntheprocessofpreparationandcompletionthepresentthesis,Iowepeoplewhoofferedtremendoushelpandsupportformewouldnothaveaccomplishedsuccessfully.agroupofandwithoutwhommythesisFirstandforemost,1wouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudeadvisedmetomysupervisor,ProfessorZhuXiaoshu,whoencouragedandallthewaythroughthecompletionofthepresentthesis.Herpatience,insightfulcommentsanddiligentresearchattitudehaveendowedmeimmeasurablehelpinwritingthethesiscontinuetohelpinmyfutureresearchwork.andwillSecond,1wouldliketoextendmythankstomyfriendswhohelpedmedistributethequestionnaire,especiallymyCanadianfriendGlennMatthew,whoadvisedmeonmyquestionnairedesign,helpedmedistributequestionnaire,andenlightenedmewithhispersonalnegotiating85percentexperiences.Withouttheirhelp,1wouldnothaveattainedanquestionnairereturnrate.Last,1wouldliketooffermythankstomymother,whoalwaysencouragedandsupportedmeduringallmyyears’eduction.YanQianMay2012摘要随着通讯和交通技术的发展,出国旅游机会的增多和国际贸易合作的发展,不同文化群体之间的沟通不断增加。但是,由于价值观、思维方式和行为模式等方面的差异,跨文化交流过程中经常会遭遇沟通失误问题。在本论文中,作者选取在国际商务中扮演重要角色的商务谈判作为研究对象,研究跨文化商务谈判中出现的沟通失误问题。在回顾了沟通失误、商务谈判和相关文化理论的已有研究之后,本文作者针对跨文化谈判中沟通失误现象产生的可能因素提出了几大假设并选用问卷调查的形式验证这些假设。为避免语言理解方面可能产生的歧义,本作者把初始的英文问卷翻译成中文,并向具备跨文化商务谈判经历的中外谈判人员派发问卷。共派发了100份(中英文版本各占一半),收回85份,包括44份中文和41份英文。在初始的问卷数据分析之后,作者还对部分问卷填写人进行了随机的无结构采访,旨在探寻问卷填写人员思路过程和选择依据,以便更详细地阐释问卷数据所反映的信息,例如,问卷中列出的因素是如何导致跨文化谈判中出现沟通失误问题的,如何才能避免类似失误问题的发生。从85份问卷反馈中得出的统计数据表明作者列出的11个因素的确会对谈判中沟通失误现象产生影响。但是,每个因素的影响具体有多大,中西方谈判者的理解存在较大差别。同时,问卷参加者反馈的关于谈判基本要素的理解与现有理论的预测存在出入。针对这一现象,本文作者认为,随着跨国商务谈判数量的不断增加,中外谈判者在互相学习并调整己方的行为方式,以保证更顺畅的商务谈判沟通。虽然问卷中一些项目的反馈(比如对语言能力和时间观念)在中西谈判人员之间的差异并不如既有理论预测的大,但是在其他一些方面(比如沟通方式和商务礼仪),依旧存在较大的差异。关键词:商务谈判;跨文化交际:沟通失误ABSTRACTAStudyofMiscommunicationinSino-WesternBusinessNegotiationsYanQianMththeadvancementincommunicationandtransportationtechnologies,therobustgrowthinoff-shoretourism,theestablishmentofworldmarketsandtheprogressinglobalbusiness,interactionsamongdifferentculturalgroupshavebeenincreasing.However,duetodifferentvalues,thinkingmodesandtimeorientation,misunderstandingsoftenariseduringinterculturalcommunication.Inthepresentthesis,theauthortakesnegotiationasoneimportantareainworldbusiness,intothesubject,andcarriesoutresearchthemiscommunicationonphenomenaoccurredwhennegotiatinginter-culturally.Afterreviewingliteraturemiscommunication,businessnegotiation,andculturaltheoriesandfindings,theauthorputsforwardsomehypothesesregardingthepossiblecausesofmiscommunicationarisingfromcross-culturalnegotiations.Inordertotestthesehypotheses,theauthordesignedaquestionnaire.Toeliminateanymisunderstandingscausedbylinguisticproblems,theresearchertranslatedtheoriginalEnglishversionintoChinese.Thentheresearcherdistributed100copies(halfinChineseandhalfinEnglish)toparticipantswhohaveexperiencesininterculturalnegotiationsandgot85copiesofresponsesback(from44Chineseand41Westerners).Afteranalyzingthedataobtainedfromtheseseveralspontaneous,on-sitecastlightuponparticipants,theauthorconductedinterviewsofsomeparticipants,bothChineseandWesterners,tosomefindingsfromthepreliminarydata.BydoingSO,theauthorexpectsthatmiscommunicationphenomenacanbeillustratedinmoredetail,howthepossiblesourcesactuallycausedCallmiscommunicationintheinterculturalbusinessnegotiationprocessandwhatleamttobeavoidfuturereoccurrence.Thestatisticdatacollectedfrom85questionnaireresponsesshowedthattheproposedelevenfactorsdoexertgreatinfluenceonthepossibleoccurrenceofmiscommunication.However,exactlyhowmuchimpacteachindividualfactorbringsontothepossibilityofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiationvariesbetweenChineseandWesternresponses.Furthermore,thedatafromquestionsofbasicperceptionstowardsinterculturalnegotiationdemonstratesomedeviationfromtheestablishedtheoriesandfindingsinthisarea.Theauthorattemptstoconcludethatwiththefastincreasinginterculturalbusinessinteractions,bothChineseandWestembusinesspersonsarelearningfromtheircounterparts,adaptingtheirownbehaviorstotheother’Sway.Therefore,theondatacollectedfromthequestionnaireresponsesreflectsmallerdifferencessomeitemsbetweenChineseandWestemparticipantsthanexistandarepredictedbypreviousfindings,thoughforsomeitems,thedifferencesdoaslarge.Keywords:businessnegotiation,interculturalcommunication,miscommunicationCONTENTSChapterOneINTRoDUCTIoN…………………………………………………………………………11.1ResearchBackgroundandNeedfortheStudy……………………………………………………………..11.2Sn’uc嘶oftheThesis………………………………………………………………………………………………4REVIEW……………………………………………………………..6ChapterTⅣOLITERATURE2.1Def'mitionsofKeyConcepts……………………………………………………………………………………..62.1.1Culture………………………………………………………………………………………………………….62.1.2(Mis)communication………………………………………………………………………………………92.1.3Negotiation………………………………………………………………………………………………….1()2.2PreviousStudiesonInterculturalBusinessNegotiations……………………………………………..1l2.3OverviewofMiscommunicationStudies…………………………………………………………………..142.4TheoreticaIFramework……………………………………………………………………………………………172.4.1Cultural2.4.2TheoriesThe丽es………………………………………………………………………………………….17onintemationalBusinessNegotiation………………………………………………..25ChapterThreeRESEARCHMETHoDoLOGY………………………………………………293.1Methodology………………………………………………………………………………………………………….293.2ResearchDesign…………………………………………………………………………………………………….303.2.1QuestionnaireDesign……………………………………………………………………………………303.2.2SampleSelection………………………………………………………………………………………….3l3.2.3DataCollectionMethods……………………………………………………………………………….32ChapterFourRESUI』rSANDDISCUSSION…………………………………………………..344.1ResultsonDataAnalysisfromonQuestionnaireResponses…………………………………………….344.1.2StatisticResultsBasieElementsRelatedtoNegotiation………………………………..344.1.3IdentifiedSourcesofMiscommunication…………………………………………………………424.2Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..484.2.1DirectnessandIndirectness……………………………………………………………………………484.2.2Relationship/guanxi…………………………………………………………………………………….494.2.3LanguageandCulture……………………………………………………………………………………5lChapterFiveCONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………..535.1MajorFindings………………………………………………………………………………………………………535.2AdviceforInterculturalBusinessNegotiators…………………………………………………………….555.3Limitationsofthepresentresearch……………………………………………………………………………565.4Suggestionsforfurtherresearch…………………………...…………………………………………………..57REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………..58APPENDIXIIIAPPENDIXENGLISHQUESTIONNAIRE……………………………………………….63CHINESE111QUESTIONNAIRE.….….….………………….….….………...66ListofTablesTable2.1TheFrameworkforGlobalBusinessNegotiations(A)……………………………25Table2.2FrameworkforGlobalBusinessNegotiations(B)………………………………….26Table2.3SelectionofNegotiators……………………………………………………………………..27ListofFigures—Figure4-1ComparisonofChinese—Westernquestionnaireresponses(A)……………42Figure4-2ComparisonofChinese—Westernquestionnaireresponses(B)……………44ChapterOnelNTRODUCTlON1.1ResearchBackgroundandNeedfortheStudySincetheeconomicreformstartedinthelate1970s,.Chinahasenjoyedaboomingeconomicgrowth.Atthebegknningofthe1980s,.thegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofroseChinawasonlyRMB4.9billion,butadecadelater,theGDPofChinatoRMB2.2trillion,.increasingbymorethanthreetimes.Inthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury,theChineseeconomyhasembracedanannualaverageGDPgrowthof10percent,.whichismarkedasthe“ChineseMiracle”.In2006,Chinabecametheworld’Sfourthlargesteconomy,surpassingtheUK;in2009,Chinawasrankedtllird,onlybehindtheUnitedStatesbyandJapan;in2010,tothejoyofChinesetopeopleand,tosomeextent,asexpectedmanyeconomists,Chinarosethesecondplaceintheworldaeconomy(诚maGDPstillof¥6.04trillion),leavingJapan(谢tIlGDPof¥5.4trillion)behindherl'.WiththerobusteconomicgrowthinChinadespitethegloomyeconomicoutlookinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.,someeconomistshavepredictedthatChinaStateswithinthecomingtenyearsorso.cansurpasstheUnitedTogetherwiththeprosperousdomesticeconomicgrowth,Chinahasbeenembracingworldmarketssinceitsopening—uppolicyintheearly1980s。Forthepastthreedecades,theworldhasseena“standing—up”China,.aworldresponsibleeconomythathasnotonlywithstoodthetestoftheeconomiccrisisbutalsoplayedanimportantroleinhelpingothereconomiesrecover.TwomeasuresclearlydemonstratetherapidglobalizationofChina’Sbusinessandeconomicplaceintheworld:OutwardForeignDirectInvestment(OFDI)andDirectForeignInvestment(DFI).Since1990,growthinFDIintoChinahasgrowndramatically..FDIinChinaclimbed11.1percentinOilSource:http://news.zgjrw.com/News/2011121/home/269363396900.shtmL.AccessedJan.20.2012.August2011fromayearearlier(whichis¥8.5billionaccordingtodatapublishedbyChina’SMinistryofCommerce).Forthefirsteightmomhsof2011,investmentrose17.7percentto¥77.6billionl.WithChina’Seconomicdevelopment.Chinastartedtoassumearoleoverseasasaninvestor.In2000,PremierZhuRongjimadeOFDIoneofthemainobjectivesofChina’StenthFive—YearPlan(2001-05)thusbeginningChina’sstrategytojointheglobalcapitalmarket.Thegovernment’Sstrategyprovedeffectiveandby2006,China’SOFDIhadgrownanaverageof112%annuallyandwas19timesgreaterthanithadbeenin20002.ThedataonbothOFDIandFDIdemonstratefbmoneperspectivethatChinahasemergedasamajorplayerintheglobalarena.Furthermore,fromtheaspectofinternationaltrade,ChinahasremainedthesecondlargesttradingpartneroftheUnitedStatessince2007,onlybehindCanada(whichisaNAFTApartnerwiththeus).In2003,ChinasurpassedGreatBritainandJapantobecomethesecondlargesttradingpartnerofCanada,aftertheUnitedStates.Since2005,theEuropeanUnionhasremainedChina’Slargesttradingpartnerandin2011,ChinabecameEU’Slargesttradingpartner.InaccordancewiththeimpressiveeconomicprogressofChina’Sgoingintemationalatthemacrolevel,theChinesebusinessesandChinesepeoplehavedemonstratedaneverhigherfrequencyincross-borderinteractions.SinceChina’SentryintotheWTOin2001,Chinesefirmshavebecomeincreasinglyactiveontheworldstage.Huawei,ZTE,Haier,LenovoandMideaareamongtheeminentexamples.In2009,37ChinesecompanieswereontheFortune500list.In2011,thenumberroseto69,surpassingJapanandonlybehindtheUnitedStateswhosenumberofFortune500companieshasbeendecreasingsince20023.Thirtyyearsago,therewerefewforeigncompamesinChina,butnowforeign—ownedcompaniesandjointventures,rangingfrommanufacturingindustriestomanagementconsultingfirms,havebecomemajorparticipantsintheChineseeconomy.1Source:BloombergNews—NewYork.USA.http://www.bloomberg.corn/news/201l-09・15/foreign—direct-investment-in.china.rises.11-1.in.august.to.8.45.billion.html.AccessedonJan.14,2012.‘Source:MINISTRYOFCOMMERCEPEOPLE’SREPUBLICOFCHINA.,accessedonJan.23,2012.h.ttp://english.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/statistic/foreigntmdecooperation/201202/20120207950258.html’Source:http'.//tech.sina.com.cn/it/2011-07—07/20125747598.shtmIn,accessedonJan.23.2012.2WiththeinteractiononprosperityofintemationalbusinessandtheacrossincreaseofChina’Stheworldstage,thepracticeofnegotiationscenebordershasbecomemoreofacommonandmorecomplicatedthanintraculturalnegotiationswithtoChineseparticipantsonly.Thelogicisnotnotdifficultexplain:negotiatorsfromdifferentculturalbackgroundoftendowhichwillcausesharethesamevaluesandbasicassumptions,atvariouslevels.problemsofcommunicationMeanwhile,sincetheinaugurationoftheopening—uppolicyintheearly1980s,Chinesepeoplehavebecomemoreopentotheoutsideworldinterculturalcommunication,eitherinbusinesscontextsorandmoreengagedinthroughpersonalcontacts.IntemationalcommunicationbetweenChinesepeopleandtheoutsideworldhasincreaseddramatically.Beforetheopening-up,ChinesepeoplerarelytraveledabroadandforeignerswererestrictedfromenteringChina,interculturalcommunicationWasof.ThoughrelativelytmheardChinesesocietyhasgrownmorediversifiedwithininterculturalmulticulturalinfusion,problemscommunicationhavebecomeincreasinglysalient.Therefore,forbothbusinessesandindividuals,cross—bordercommunicationhasprovenmoredifficultthanthatwithintheonsamecountry.Intemationalofabusinessasnegotiation,atestastheinterculturalcommunicationcapacitiescompanywellatheindividualnegotiators,carriesmoreweightforthepartiesinvolvedthannegotiationandit,thus,deservesseriousattentionfromnationalresearchersofintemationalcommunication.Toareachsatisfyingresultsininterculturalbusinessasnegotiationsrequiresnotonlytechnicalnegotiatingskillssuchproperstrategiesandflexibility,butalsode印understandingandmiscommunicationrespectofoneanother’Sculture,whichCanhelpovercomeanythatmightderivefromthedifferencesincancultures.Inattentiontotheculturalcontextresultnotonlyinmisunderstandingsbetweenthenegotiatingpartiesbutinsometimescostlyeffort,reputationblundersinnegotiations.“Time,andevencontractscanbelostbecauseofculturalignorance”(Fan,2005,P.1).AsanMAstudentmajoringininterculturalbusinesscommunication,theauthorfeelstheresponsibilitytocarryoutresearchintocross-borderbusinessnegotiations.3Thehopeisthattheempiricaldatacollectedfromsurveysandinterviews,togetherwiththerelevantbusinesstheoreticalelaborationcanshedlightonthepracticeofinterculturalnegotiation,andprovidesomefeasibleadvicetonegotiators.Consideringthatonthereareplentyofacademicworkstonegotiationstyles,strategies,andtactics,i.e.fromtheperspectiveof“howattemptstoprovidebetteryournegotiation”,theauthorofthisstudytofmdingson‘'howavoidmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiation':Initially,theauthorchosetotostudySino・USbusinessnegotiations,butlatershiftednegotiationsbetweenChinesepeopleandthosefromWASP(WhiteAnglo.SaxonreasonsProtestant)cultures.Theparticipantsaretwo—fold:first,therewerenotenoughAmericanavailabletotheresearcher;second,thedominantculturesincountrieslikeareCanadaandtheUKsimilartothatoftheUS.Thatistosay,toenlargethesurveypooltoincludenegotiatorsfrommainstreamAnglo—Saxoncultureswon’taffecttheoriginalcomparativepurpose.Therefore,theauthorchangedtheresearchsubjecttoSino—Westernbusinessnegotiations,inwhichsuchasWesternmeanscountries谢tlldominantAnglo—SaxonculturestheUS,theUKandCanada.1.2StructureoftheThesisThethesisconsistsoffivechapters.ChapterOneistheintroductionandprimarilyfocusesontheresearchbackgroundonandtheneedforthepresentstudy.ChapterTwoprovidesanextensivereviewpreviousstudiesofmiscommunication,interculturalcommunicationkeyandbusinessnegotiations.Thispartstarts、肮mthedefinitionsofthreebusinessnegotiation.Followingonwords:culture,(mis)communication,andthedefinitions,theauthorreviewspreviousstudiesnegotiationasaandfindingsinterculturalbusinessprosperousnaturalextensionoftheresearchbackground(i.e.thegrowthinChina’Snegotiationpracticeswithpartnersfromotherthereviewofexistingstudiesoncountries).Nextoncomesmiscommunicationwithafocusmiscommunieationinthebusinessworld.Theauthorconcludesthattheretoarerelativelyfewworksdevotedamiscommunicationincross-bordernegotiations,whichprovidestoresearchgapforathepresentthesisfill.Inthelastpart4ofChapterTwo,theauthorproposestheoreticalframeworkcomposedofculturaltheoriesandthoseofbusinessnegotiations,whichisappliedindataanalysisanddiscussioninChapterFour.Amongculturalastheories,theauthorselectsHofstede’SculturaldimensionstheoryHall’Shigh-andlow-contexttheorytocastawellasEdwardgeneralpictureonthedifferencesbetweenaChinesecultureandthedominantWesternculture.Furthermore,theauthorpresentsdetailedexaminationofthetwospecificcultures,analyzingsomeculturaltraitsvalueandsystemsparticulartoeachculture,suchasConfucianisminChina,andindividualisminNorthAmerica.Whenshiftingtonegotiationrelatedtheories,theauthorintroducestheFrameworkforGlobalBusinessNegotiationsandGraham’Sfourstagesofnegotiation.ChapterThreeisaboutmethodology.Thischapterstarts、聃tllageneralmethodologicaldescriptionofthepresentresearch,aculturalcomparativeapproachthatcombinesquantitativeandqualitativemethods.Itcontinueswithanelaborationoftheresearchdesign,includingqustionnaireChapterdesign,sampleselectionanddatacollection.Fouristhemainbodyofthepresentresearch.Inthispart,theauthorfirstpresentsthedatacollectedfromthesurvey(questionnaire)andtheresultsachievedafrompreliminarystatisticalanalysis.Consideringthatthisisauthoranalyzesthedataaccordingtothecomparativestudy,thecomparativesignificancebetweenChinesegroupsandWesternresponses,i.e。whatitemsproducedsimilarresponsesfromthetwoandwhatitemssawverydifferentresponses.Thisisfollowedbytheoriesdescribedinaninterpretationofthefirst-halldresultsbyemployingChapterTwo,togetherwithillustrationsfrominterviewswitllexperiencednegotiators.Inthelastchapter,ChapterFive,theauthormakesaconclusionabouttheresearchfindings,i.e.whatthepossiblesourcesofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiationsare.BasedfuturenegotiatorsSOonthefindings,theauthorattemptstooffersomeadviceforavoidmiscommunicationauthorastoandachievemoresatisfyingnegotiationoutcomes.Finally,thementionsthelimitationsofthepresentresearchandofferssuggestionsforfutureresearch.5ChapterTwoLITERATUREREVlEWThischapterisdesignedtoreviewthepreviousstudiesandacademicworksrelevanttothepresentresearchtopic.Onthewhole,theauthorreviewstwobusinessmajorareas:negotiation,andmiscommunication.However,consideringthecomextoftheworld,presentresearch,i.e.theincreasinginteractiontheauthorfeelstheneedtotakeabetweenChinaandtheWesterncloserlookatthee虹sfinginterculturalresearchtofocusonandtrimthereviewoftheabovetwoareastheinterculturalaspect.2.1DefinitionsofKeyConceptsItisacommonpracticethatbeforesettingofftoresearchaonacertainconcept,peoplebeginWitllworksdefinitionofit.Therefore,beforewestarttoreviewthepreviousdefinitionpartofthreeimportantandfindings,weneedtodetourintotheconcepts:culture,(mis)communication,and2.1.1Culturenegotiation.Thoughtheconcept‘‘culture”hasbeenstudiedmorepeoplerealizingthepowerofculturalfactorsnoagreatmanytimeswithmoreandoninternationalinteractions,thereiscansingledefinitionthatisacceptedbyallscholars.Theconceptofcultureabeall—inclusive,asisdefmedbyE.B.Tylor(1871)morethancomplexwholewhichincludescenturyago,cultureis“thatknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,custom,andanyasaothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanmemberofsociety”.Accordingtothisdef'miEon,cultureincludesallelementsappearedinhumancivilization,asmethodsofproduction,lawsandregulations,arts,ritualsandcustoms.HoebelputforwardaandFrost(1976)definitionfromthebehavioralperspectiveanddefinedcultureas‘‘theintegratedsystemoflearnedbehaviorpatternswhicharecharacteristicsofthemembersofasocietyandwhicharenottheresultofbiologicalinheritance”,whileHofestede6(1980)tookaviewfrompeople’Smentalityandtreatedcultureas“thecollectiveprogrammingofthemindwhichdistinguishesthemembersofonehumangroupfromanother.’’Concerningthepurposeofthepresentthesis,theauthorprefersadefinitionthatcontainstherecurringthemeofhowcultureandcommunicationarelinked.Pertainingtothis,theoneadvancedbyTriandisisofferedhere:CultureiSasetofhuman.madeobjectiveandsubjectiveelementsthatinthepasthaveincreasedtheprobabilityofsurvivalandresultedinsatisfactionfortheparticipantsinanecologicalniche,andthusbecamesharedamongthosewhocouldcommunicatewitheachotherbecausetheyhadacommonlanguageandtheylivedinthesametimeandplace(asiScitedinSamovareta1.,2010).AsiSpointedoutbyHall(1977,P.14),“CultureiScommunicationandcommunicationisculture.'’Youlearnyourcultureviacommunicationandsocialinteractionwimotherswithinthesameculture,whileatthesametime,communicationisareflectionofyourculture.Oneimportantpremiseofcomparativestudiesondifferentculturesaroundtheworldisthat,allhumanculturesshareaseriesofcommoncharacteristics.AsHuntingtonnotes,‘‘Theheartofcultureinvolveslanguage,religion,values,traditionsandcustoms'’(asiscRedinasiscitedinSamovareta1.,2010,p.26).Beforewecarryontodiscussinterculturalcommunication,itisnecessarytopauseandreviewthecharacteristicsofculturefirst.>Cultureislearned.Frominfancy,membersofaculturelearntheirpatternsofbehaviorandwaysofthinkinguntilmostofthosepatternsbecomeinternalizedandhabitual.LearningCantaketheformofbeingtaught.Forinstance,alittleboyintheUnitedStateswhoistoldbyhisgrandfathertoshakehandswhenbeingintroducedtoafamilyMendislearninggoodmanners.Meanwhile,itCanalsobeinformallearning.Forexample,allIndianchildwholivesinahomewherethewomeneatafterthemenislearninggenderroles.Onepointmustbemadeclear:peopleusuallylearntheirculturewithoutactuallybeingawareofit.AsisobservedbyRubin,ttthepresenceofcultureisSOsubtleandpervasivethatitsimplygoeslmnoticed.It’Stherenow,it’SbeenthereaslongasanyoneCanrememberandfew7ofushavereasontothinkmuchaboutit'’(asiscitedinSamovar,2010,p.28).TiffsorexplainedwhymisunderstandingcommunicationfailureOCCurSbetweenpeopleofthebehaviorswelabelas“cultural’’fromdifferentculturalarebackgrounds.Mostautomatic,invisibleandusuallyperformedwithoutOurbeingawareofthem.a》Cultureisshared.Bysharingbehaviors,peoplesetofideas,values,perceptionsandstandardsofculturecanfromthesameunderstandeachotherandacknowledgethesameculturalidentity,whichmakestheactionsofindividualsintelligibletotheothermembersofsociety.Thissharedidentityproducesasituationwheremembersofeachculturerecognizethemselvesandtheirculture’Straditionsasdistinctfromotherpeopleandothertraditions.Sociallifewouldbeimpossiblewithouttheseshared>Cultureisbasedonunderstandingsandpractices.notsymbols.Thisisaredifficulttounderstand.Whenwetalkaboutculturaldifferences,wenotwonderingaboutsomeabstractconcept,weaarethinkingofconcreteexamplesofcertaincultures,suchasgestures,dress,flags,religiousiconsandthelike.Aboveall,languageisthemostimportantsymbolicaspectofculture.Peopleusewordstodescribeobjectsandideas.Peoplelivingindesertareasmaynothaveasinglewordtorefertoboatsbutmayhavemanywordstodifferentiatevariouskindsofcamelswhichmightbevirtuallythesameinothercultures.>Cultureisdynamic.TheprominentGreekphilosopherHeraclitusobservedmorethantwothousandyearsago,“Youcannotsteparetwiceintothesameriver,forothertowatersarecontinuallyflowingin.’’Thingssubjectchangeandcultureisnevernoexception.Althoughcultureprovidesstrengthandstability,itisstatic.Instead,culturalvaluesandbeliefskeepspreadingintootherculturesandbeinginfusedwithvaluesandbeliefsfromothercultures.Particularlyinthisglobalization,peoplemoveatanevereraofrapidhigherfrequency,bringingtheiruniqueculturalpracticesintothehostingcultureandbringingbacksomedifferenttraitsfromtheotherculture.PeoplenowadaysinChinaenjoypopmusiclongerlimitedonlytoPekingoperaor“Redchipsbesidesdumplingsorhip.hop,noSongs’’;andtheyeathamburgerandandstewedpotatoes.However,values8andbehaviorsassociated谢msuchthingsasethicsandmorals,aresodeeplyembeddedinaculturethattheypersistgenerationaftergeneration.That’Sexactlyhoweachcultureonthisplanetkeepsitsuniquenessanddistinctfromeachothereveninthisglobalizedvillage.Moreover,thatiswhypeoplefinditdifficultunderstandpeoplefromadifferentculture.tocompletelyFortheclarityoffi.u'therresearchregardingtheconceptofculture,theauthorherenarrowstheword“culture”tomeanonlythesharedvalues,ideas,perceptionsandpolitics,historiesstandardsofbehaviors,customs,notincludingsituations.andeconomic2.1.2(Mis)communicationAccordingtoSamovareta1.,communicationisstates谢thandadynamicprocessinwhichpeopleuseattempttosharetheirinternalotherpeoplethroughtheofsymbols(2010,ap.16),whileaccordingtoPorterSamovar(1994),“[c]ommunicationisdynamictransactionalbehavior-affectingprocessinwhichpeoplebehaveintentionallytoinduceorelicitaparticularresponsefromanotherperson”(ascitedinZhang,2004,P.17).Followingthisdefinition,wecancometothefunctionsofcommunication:>Communicationallowsyou>Communicationtogatherinformationaboutotherpeople;>Communicationhelpsfulfillinterpersonalneeds;establishespersonalidentities;>Communicationinfluencesothers,i.e.bysendingverbalandnon-verbalmessages,youCanshapethebehaviorsofotherpeople.Withregardtotheabovefunctionsofcommunication,wecaninferthatmiscommunicationoccurswhenthesefunctionsfailtowhenperform.AccordingtoaHouseetisa1.(2003),miscommunication“occurredunsuccessfulbelievestohavebeencommunicationattemptbecausewhatthesenderintendstoexpressdiffersfromwhatthereceiverexpressed”(asiscitedinJacobsen,2005,P.2).However,itisnotuncommontofindwordslikemisunderstanding,misinterpretingormisperceptionappearingofteninacademicworkscanbesidesamiscommunication.AccordingtoJacobsen(2005),miscommunicationlackofclearorrefertoabroaddefinitionofanyadequatecommunication.Butitisalso9morespecific,sender-basedprocessoffailuretocommunicatecorrectly.Thatistosay,ifwetakealookatthetwodifficultpartiesinthecommunicationprocess,thesenderandthereceiver,itisforUSnotverytodifferentiatethesewords:tomiscommunicateissomethingdonebythesender,alebutmiscommunicationasanounimpliesthatbothsenderandreceiverinvolved.Meanwhile,tomisunderstandormisinterpret,issomethingdonebythereceiver,butmisunderstandingasanounCallinvolvebothsenderandreceiver.outConsideringthepurposeofthepresentpaper,thatistofindofthepossibleorcausesmiscommunicationduringinterculturalnegotiations,notlinguisticetymologicalstudies,theauthortakesmisunderstanding,misinterpreting,problematiccommunication,communicationclearorbreakdownasequalstomiscommunication,referringtothelackofsufficientcommunication.InterculturalcommunicationaOCCurSwhenamemberofonecultureproducesetamessageforconsumptionby2.1.3Negotiationmemberofanotherculture(Samovara1.,2010,p.12).Itseemseveryacademicworkonnegotiationsuggestsanewdefinitionofthesubject.However,negotiationhadbeentherelongbeforetheearliestacademicondefinition.AncientRomansusedthewordnegotiari,meaning“tocarrybusiness”.NegotiariderivesfromtheLatinroots“neg'’(not)and“otium”(easeliterallymeaning“notnegotiationorleisure),leisure”(Moran,199involvedhardwork.1,p.71).Obviously,forancientRomans,andbusinessJustlikethenumerousdefinitionsofculture,therenegotiation,neverreachingaarealsomanydefinitionsofconsensus.Thoughdifferentinwording,mostofthedefinitionsofnegotiationprovidedbyscholarsactuallycarrysomecommonelements:twoormoreparties;commoninterests;conflictingtwoorinterests;anagreementofmutualbenefits.Inthisrespect,theauthoradoptedthedefinitiongivenbyHofstedeandUsunier:[Negotiations]involvecommonneedtoreachanmorepartieswhohaveconflictinginterestsbutaagreement,thecontentofwhichisnotclearlydefinedattheoutset(1996).Businessnegotiation,asthenamesuggested,referstothenegotiationthattakesplacewithinbusinessfields,suchtrade,andtheascommerce,economiccooperation,internationalarelike.Whennegotiatingpartiesfromdifferentcultures,thisnegotiationissaidtobeintercultural.Beforewemoveontotheliteraturereviewpart,itisnecessarynegotiationshereintoclarifythatstudyreferintercultural/cross—borderparticularlytobusinessthepresentChina-Westernbusinessnegotiations.Tobemorespecific,ChinareferstomainlandChina,notincludingTaiwan,MacaoandHongKong;WesterncountriesrefertothoseEnglish-speakingcountriesliketheUnitedStatesandCanada。2.2PreviousStudiesInonInterculturalBusinessNegotiationsincreaseinthefrequencyofaccordancewiththeonesinterculturalbusinessnegotiations,especiallythebetweenChinaandNorthAmericanareancountrieslikethetothisUnitedStatesandCanada,there2010,Holguinampleamountofacademicworksdevotedarea(KandathilandFelipe2010).aInterculturalnegotiationdifferentiatesitselffromintra-culturalnegotiationforvarietyoffactors,includinggreatergeographicaldistance,longerdurationandmorecomplicatedprocessexertgreaterere.Amongthem,theculturaldifferencesonarethemostsalientandimpactstheoutcomeofinterculturalbusinessnegotiation.Scholarsarehavefoundthroughempiricalevidencethatinterculturalnegotiatorslessabletoachievemutuallybeneficialoutcomescomparedtonegotiatorswhosecounterpartsarefromthesameculturalgroup(Adler&Graham1989.Brett&Okumura1998).Forexample,jointprofitswouldbereducedfortheJapanesewhennegotiatingwithAmericansthanwhennegotiatingreasonswithotherJapanese.Imaicontributedthepossiblecanto“considerablecognitive,motivational,andbehavioralchallengeswhichimpedethenegotiationprocess”(2007,p.7)afterculturesettings.reviewingthepreviousstudiesintheandnegotiationliteraturethatdirectlyexaminenegotiationsininterculturalNationalcultureisgenerallybelievedtohaveinfluenceonnationalnegotiatingstylesandpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundstendtoadoptdifferentnegotiatingstyles,asisrevealedinZhu’S(2007)research.If1lnotmanagedwell,differencesofnegotiatingstylescanleadtofrustrationanddisappointment,orevenjeopardizethebusinessrelationship.AccordingtoZhu,Chinesenegotiatorstendtoadopttheavoidingandobligingstyleswhenconflictsarise,becausetheyputgreatemphasisongroupharmonyandamicablerelationship.Onthecontrary,theAmericansaremoreinclinedtoadoptadirect,head—onconflictmanagementstyleinanegotiation,astheyaretask。orientedandputlessemphasisonmaintainingafriendlyrelationship.Intheend,Zhusuggestedthatnegotiatorsviewnegotiationasadynamicprocessandtakeflexiblestylesassituationdemands,notconfmingoneselftoonespecificconflictmanagementstyleonly.Besidesworksfocusedonnegotiationstrategiesandtacticsingeneral,orprovidinghandytipsfornegotiationpractitioners,cross-culturecomparisonofnegotiationstylesandstrategieshasbecomemoreandmorecommoninthisarea.takingintoaccounttheinfluencesofculturaldifferences.Forinstance,Volkemaeta1.(2002)comparedtheperceptionsof142currentandfuturebusinessprofessionalsfromtwoemergingtradepartners,BrazilandtheUnitedStates,regardingtheappropriatenessandlikelyuseoffivecategoriesofnegotiationtacticsundersevenchallengingorunfavorablenegotiatingconditionscommonlyfacedbynegotiators.Theirfindingsindicateanoverallconditionaleffectforbothattitudes(perceivedappropriateness)andintentions(1ikelihoodofuse).SheerandLing(2003)studiedtheinfluencesofChinesecultureonSino—WesternnegotiationthroughinterviewswithbothChineseandWesternnegotiatorsandconcludedthattheChinesevalueonpersonalrelationshipinbusinesspracticesasmajorfactors,whilecommunicationandsocialetiquetteasaminorfactor.Imai(2007)examinedtheroleofculturalintelligence(CQ)asapotentialpredictorofinterculturalnegotiationeffectivenessbycodingthenegotiationtranscriptsof124AmericanandEastAsiannegotiators(62dyads)forjointsequencingofintegrativebehaviorsaswellassequencingofcooperativerelationshipmanagementbehaviors.TheexploratoryanalysesrevealedthatdyadshighinCQwerefoundtoengageinmorestrategicsequencingofintegrativebehaviors,whichinturnledtohighjointoutcomes.Althoughthereareanincreasingnumberofresearchcomparingthedifferencesinnegotiationbehaviors(suchasnegotiatingstyles,strategiesandtactics)acrosscultures,mostofthemareintendedtoarousepeople’Sculturalawarenessandprovidetipsfornegotiatorsbyillustratingtheculturaldirectlyondifferences.Muchorfewerworkshavefocusedtheperspectiveofmiscommunicationcommunicationfailuresindoexistthatinterculturalbusinessnegotiation.Nevertheless,workscausesmentionmiscommunicationanditsDifferentculturesininterculturalbusinessnegotiations.assigndifferentonecommunicatingcausesprioritiesinpeople’Scommunicationsystem,whichisinterculturalbusinessnegotiationofthemainisnoticedinofmisunderstandingsinasFan’S(2005)research.Whentobecommunicatingwithothers,thetoppriorityforAmericanbusinessmenisunderstoodclearlyoutandtomaketheirpersonalvoiceheard.Forthisreason,theywillspeakdirectlywhattheyarethinkingintheirminds.Whentheydisagreewitllsomeonesomeopinion,theychallengethepersonororoncorrecttheideaimmediatelyandinastraightforwardway.However,Chinesepeopleusuallythinkhighlyofgroupharmonyandhaveconsiderableconcernforeachother’Sasaface.Todirectlyvoiceone’Sownopinionisregardedpotentialdangeraofbreakinggroupharmony;tochallengeothersintheirfaceisatotaldisastertoharmoniousrelationship.onSummingup,theimpactofculturaldifferencesbusinessnegotiationshasbeenwidelyresearchedinrecentyears,whereasanalysisofhowculturaldifferencestoCanleadvariousformsofmiscommunicationinbusinessnegotiationisstillbeingexplored.oneTheliteraturereviewedinthissectionshowsthatnegotiationisofthemostpopularasresearchtopics,whoseperspectivesrangingfromnegotiatingelementssuchprinciples,stages,strategiesguidingandthelike,toasaculture—specificnegotiatingstylesandbehaviors,andcross-culturecomparisonsresultofincreasinginternationalbusinessonnegotiationpractices.However,therearerelativelyfewworksthatexclusivelytargetthemiscommunicationonproblemsininterculturalbusinessnegotiation.Someoftheoneorexistingworkscausebusinessnegotiationmerelymentiontwofactorsthatamightmiscommunicationinnegotiatingwithcounterpartsfromadifferentculture.Thisencouragestheauthortoconductthepresentresearchofthoroughexaminationintothemiscommunicationphenomenaininterculturalbusinessnegotiation,tobringlightuponquestionslike“howmiscommunicationOCCurS”,“whataretheconsequences”,“howpeoplecanavoidmiscommunicationandachievebetternegotiatingomcome”.2.3OverviewofMiscommunicationStudiesAsissuggestedintheabovedef'mitionpart,miscommunicationthebroadestcanberegardedasSincetermencompassingaany7卵括-andnon-communication.miscommunicationissuchcommonplaceanduniversalphenomenoninverbalandnonverbalcommunication,ithasbeentheobjectanofstudyindifferentdisciplines.Tobegin、^,itll,miscommunicationisoften-studiedtopicinthelinguisticfieldare(Sun2007,Peng2008).Hancock(2004)suggestedthattherewhenambiguousmorechancesofmiscommunicationlanguageusagessuchasironyoccur.Inhisbetweenface—to—faceresearch,Hancockcompared(FtF)communicationconcludedthatduetoandironyproductiontheofandcomprehensioncomputer-mediatedcommonphysicalcommunication(CMC)andsettingsalackanddeprivationofparalinguisticcuesthat锣picallymarktheironicintentofthestatementinFtFinteractions,CMCismorelikelytocausemiscommunicationwhenadoptingirony.Moreover,forlanguagelearners,evenifⅡ1eyarefluentinlinguisticlevels,tlleystillencountercommunicationproblemswhenneglected'’(Zhang,2002,P.79).exposedto“culturalcontext”oftheforeignlanguage,thus,“miscommunicationOCCurSwhenthesocioculturalaspectsoflanguageareDuetothelargegapofprofessionalmedicationknowledgebetweenthedoctorsandthepatients,therearehigherAsachancesofmiscommunicationinthemedicalworld.result,therearelotsofworksdevotedtothisaviationappearasarea(Krenzischek2011,Thomasone2011).Likewise,thefieldaisanotherhighlyprofessionalorwhereerrorsmiscommunicationcanresultofmachinerybreakdowntheaircrafthuman(Bohling1992).Symer(1998)analyzedflightaccidentscausedmainlybythemiscommunicationwithincrews;whileHoward(2003)studiescenters.miscommunicationbetweenpilotsandtheairtrafficcontrolEducationisPetersonanotherfieldthatmiscommunicationisfrequentlythat“gradesstudied(Plaut2004,non-1991).Olso(1990)contendedtocontaminatedwithachievementfactorsfailedcommunicate”.Peopleusuallyinte印retgradesandscoresasindicatorofthestudents’academicachievement,butthereforareteacherswhotousegradesclassroommanagementpurposes,givinglowgradesthosewhomisbehavedinclassroomactivitiesdespitetheirhighacademicachievement.Thedifferentwaysofinterpretinggradesfromthegrade-givers,parentsandeducationadministrationthesourcescausemiscommunicationproblems.LiandPeng(2010)triedofbusinessEnglishtotoexploreofmiscommunicationmajorsininterculturalbusinessoftheacommunicationbydistributingquestionnaires100subjects.Theanalysesresultsfromthequestionnairesuggestthatthemainlackofcontextualcauseofmiscommunicationisawareness.Therefore,theauthorssuggestedincreasingcontextualawarenessasInaawaytoavoidculturalmiscommunication.sense,thereareonlytwokindsofpeople:maleandfemale.Thetwoarenotonlybiologicallyoppositebutalsodivergentlydifferentinmentalityandpsychology.aTherefore,itisnosurprisethatmiscommunicationbetweenmaleandfemaleis1993,Rabin1994).Americanculturepopularly-studiedassumesthatarea(Blundengenerallymisunderstandingandconflictarepervasivebetweenmenandwomen;witnesstheterm“thebattleofthesexes”.AlthoughsomestudieshavenotfoundmiscommunicationMulaceta1.1tobeaspervasiveasthepublicgenerallyexpected(Bussmany1989,past998),genderdifferencesoftendoexist,assuggestedinresearchthatmale/femaleinteractionsmoreproblematicthanotherinteractions.Forinstance,Jacobsen(2005)carriedoutaquantitativeresearchinvestigatingmiscommunicationreflectedintranscriptsofone--weekat・-homeconversationsofeight“satisfied'’marriedcouples.Hisstudyhowspeechactsanalyzedthefrequencyofmiscommunication,cuesrelatetomiscommunication,andidentificationofverbalassociated、Ⅳimmiscommunication.Theastheuniquepointofthisstudyisthatitidentifiesmiscommunicationumbrellaatermandregardsthanaunderstanding,misunderstandingandnon-understandingasdevelopedacontinuumratherfivebinaryprocess.Theauthorfurthertypologyoftypesofmiscommunication:process。centered,sender-centered,receiver-centered,cognition—centered,andthe“nons’’(non-communication).Miscommunicationamongpeoplewitll15differentculturalbackgroundsisacommonsceneandacademicallyoneofthemoststudiedresearchareas.Regardingthis,cross-culturecomparisonisfrequentlyadopted(Zhang2002,Zhu2004,Tesdell1999).Forinstance,Tyler(1995)comparedKoreanandAmericaninteractionsandexaminedthesourcesofmiscommunicationinavideotapedtutoringsessioninvolvinganativespeakerofKoreanandanativespeakerofU.S.English.Analysisrevealedallinitialnon—mutualinterpretationofparticipantrolesandstatuswhichisresultedfromtheKoreantutor’StransferofaKoreanconversationalroutine,whichinvolvespolitespeakermodesty,totheU.S.Englishcontext.Theinitialconflictinginterpretationsaremaintainedandsolidifiedbyadditionalmismatchesindiscoursemanagementstrategies,schema,andcontextualizationcues.Thecumulativeeffectofthesemismatcheswasthejudgmentonthepartofeachinterlocutorthattheotherwasuncooperative.Zhang(2002)reviewedhowthesocioculturalcomponentaffectsthecommunicativecompetenceoflanguagespeakers,andconcludedthatspeakersfollowingdifferentsocioculturalrulescanresultinmiscommunicationbecausecommunicationreliedonculture-specificpatterns.Shefurthercontendedthatmiscommunicationcarlbeminimizedthroughculturallearningbyacquiringcross-culturalcompetencesuchastheabilitytouselanguageappropriatelywheninteractingincross—culturecommunication.Academicworksalwaysservethedevelopmentofeconomies.Onecaseinpointistheincreasingresearchdevotedtothestudyofmiscommunicationininternationalbusinessprojects.Forexample,Ferrad矗s(1990)examinedtheprocessesofcommunicationandmiscommunicationbetweenandwithinthest啦ofarelocationagencyandadisplacedpopulationinthecaseoftheresettlementprocessof20,000peopleinthecityofPosadas,ArgentinawhoarebeingmovedbecauseoftheconstructionoftheYacyretahydroelectricdam.Thisstudyincorporatedtheanalysisofthehistoricalandpoliticaldimensionandtriedtoforegroundthetensionsbetweenandwithinagencyandstructure.Devier(2007)investigatedtheunderlyingissuesthatleadtomiscommunicationandresultingdelaysbetweenGeneralContractorsandDesigners(EngineersandArchitects)inthehopeoffindingtheiroriginationSOastosolvetheseissues.HesuggestedthattheconflictsbetweenthedesignerandcontractorCanberesolved‘'withjustalittlemoreunderstandingonbothsidesofthespectrum,thus,creatingabetterworkenvironmentforeveryone”.aZhang(2004)conductedresearchonmiscommunicationinbusinessnegotiationChineseandsettingsbycomparingthedifferentnegotiatingstylesoftheAmericans.Withillustrationofsevencasesfromnegotiatingbooksandninecitationsfromorinterviews,eitherfromnegotiationbooksauthorconcludedsixreasonsfromhisownbusinessexperiences,theofcommunicationfailuresinbusinessnegotiationsbetweenChineseandAmericans,includingpersonalrelationship,timeconcepts,attitudestoconfrontation,etc.Tosunlup,theexistingstudiesonmiscommunicationcovervariousfieldsanddisciplinesfromlinguisticanalysis,profession-specificcommunicationbreakdown,tocommunicationproblemsinbusinesssettings.However,relativelyfewstudieshavereviewedmiscommunicationfromtheperspectiveofbusinessnegotiations.Ontheotherhand,negotiatingsuccessisregardedasanartof‘‘1talking'’andpersuasion,thuscausescommunicationismoreimportantandmiscommunicationmoreseriousnegativemakesitnecessaryconsequencesinnegotiatingcontexts.Thisfactstudymiscommunicationinonandworthwhiletobusinessnegotiations,whichthepresentstudywillexplorethebasisoftheexistingliterature.2.4TheoretiealFrameworkInthispart,theauthorintendstointroducesometheoriesandfindingsonculturesandnegotiationspertainingtothesubjectunderdiscussion.Inculture。relatedtheories,theauthorwillfirstintroduceHofstede’Sculturaldimensiontheory,Hall’Shigh-andlow.contexttheory,thefaceconceptandthenmovenorthontotheoriginsofChineseandAmericancultures.Forthenegotiation-relatedtheories,theauthoradoptsmainlytheFrameworkforGlobalBusinessNegotiationsaandGraham’Sfourstagesofnegotiation.Alltheseaimatprovidingsolidtheoreticalfoundationforfurtherdiscussion.Intheprocess,theauthorintroduced.2.4.1CulturalTheorieswillproposehypothesespertinenttothetheories2.4.1.1Hofstede’sCulturalDimensionsHofstede’Sworkwasoneoftheearliestattemptstouseextensivestatisticaldatatoexamineculturalvalues.AccordingtoHofstede,culturesdifferalongfourculturaldimensions,includingcollectivism/individualism,masculinity/femininity,powerdistance,anduncertaintyavoidance.Subsequentresearchrevealedafifthdimension,long—term/short-termorientation.Giventhescopeofthepresentstudy,theauthoronlydiscussesthreevaluedimensions.Individualism/CollectivismIndividualisticculturessuchasthedominantAmericancultureemphasizepersonalrightsandresponsibilities.Theindividualisthesinglemostimportantunitinanysocialsettingandindividualachievementisrewarded.What’Smore,independenceratherthaninterdependenceisstressed.People’Spersonalgoalstakepriorityovertheirallegiancetogroupslikethefamilyorthecompany.Onthecontrary,collectivisticcultureslikeChinaemphasizecommunity,harmony,traditionandloyaltytothegroup.Incollectivisticculturesinterdependenceistypicalandindividualconsiderationsaresecondarytotheneedsandinterestsofthegroup.Moreover,communicativetraitssuchasindirectcommunication,savingface,concernforothersandgroupcooperation,arecloselylinkedtocollectiveorientation.PowerDistanceAnotherculturalvaluedimensionofferedbyHofstedeispowerdistancewhichclassifiesculturesonacontinuumofhighandlow—powerdistance.Hesummarizestheconceptinthefollowingmanner:‘‘Powerdistanceasacharacteristicofaculturedef'medtheextenttowhichthelesspowerfulpersoninsocietyacceptsinequalityinpowerandconsidersitasnormal”(asiscitedinSamovareta1.,2010,p.203).High—powerdistancecountrieslikeChinatakepowerandauthorityasfactsoflifeandsocialhierarchyisprevalent.Organizationswithinhigh-powerdistanceculturesmanifestagreaterconcentrationofpower,moreimportanceplacedonstatusandrank,alargerproportionofsupervisorypersonnel,structuredvaluesystemonhierarchy.Onthecontrary,low—powerdistanceculturesliketheUnitedStatesholdthatinequalityinsocietyshouldbeminimized.Peopleintheseculturesseehierarchyasaninequalityofrolesestablishedforconvenience.Subordinatesconsidersuperiorstobethesamekindofpeopleastheyare.andviceversa.Peopleinpowerofteninteract诚ththeirconstituentsandtrytolooklesspowerfulLong-・andShort-—TermOrientationthantheyreallyare.Thisdimensiondescribespeople’Sattitudetowardsfuture.Somepeoplefocusonthepresenthappinesswhileotherspaymoreattentiontothelongtermwelfare.Forexample,culturesrankinghighonlong-termorientationsuchasChinawouldmostlikelyhaveemployeeswhoreflectastrongworkethicandshowgreatrespectforstatusdifferences.IndividualsfromtheseculturesvaluesocialorderThoseculturesthatranklowonandlong—rangegoals.thelong-termorientationliketheUnitedStatesandonCanada,oftendonotplacehi曲prioritystatusbuttrytopostponeoldage,areconcerned谢mshort-termresultsandseekquickgratificationoftheirneeds.2.4.1.2EdwardT.Hall’sHigh—andLow-ContextCommunicationTheoryTheculturalanthropologistEdwardHalloffersinanothereffectivemeansofexaminingsimilaritiesanddifferencesasbothperceptionandcommunication.Heoncategorizedcultureswhichbeingeitherhigh-orlow-context,dependingfromthesettingratherthedegreetomeaningcomesthanfromtheisonewordsbeingexchanged.inwhichmostoftheSpecifically,ahigh—context(HC)communicationinformationtransmittedisalreadyintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicitlypartofthemessage;whilealow-context(LC)communicationistheopposite,i.e.themassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.Althoughallculturescontainsomecharacteristicsofbothvariables,mostcallhi。曲-andlow-contextorbeplacedalongcontinuumshowingtheirtendenciestowardHCLCcommunication.AccordingtoHall’Sfindings,JapanandChinarankhighintheendofHCandNorthAmericanculturesareclosetotheLCend.2.4.1.3FaceandFaceworkFaceisametaphorfortheself-imageyouconstructionandwanttoprojectthattootherpeopleandfaceworkactionsisthecommunicationoroffacecomprisesthevariousoneengagesintogainfaceforoneselfseetogivefacetootherpeople.Sinceafacedescribeshowyouwantotherstoyou,itisproductofsocialinteractionscultures,whereself-identityandissubjecttoculturalinfluences.Inindividualisticdeterminedbypersonalachievements,peoplearemoreconcernedwithmaintainingtheirownface.SincetheAmericansdonotusuallyrelyongroupaffiliation,theyarelessconcernedwithhowtheyinfluenceothers’face.Thisproducesaratherdirectandforthrightcommunicationstyle.Contrarily,incollectivisticcultureswheregroupmembershipistheprimarysourceofidentityandstatus,considerablevalueisplacedonestablishingandsustainingstable,harmoniousrelationships谢缸1membersofthesamegroup.Thus,tosaveorgiveother’Sfaceisimportant.Asonemightsuspect,extremepolitenessisalsopartofface—savingbecausebeingrudeordisrespectfiJlwouldcausetheotherpersontofeelembarrassedorshamed,andexperiencealossofface.Thoughfaceandlaceworkarefoundinmostcultures,scholarsbelievethatfaceconcernsaremostsalientinChineseculture.InChinesesense,faceissomethingtangiblethatCanbegiven(facegiving),belost(facelosing)orsaved(facesaving).Failuretoconformtothenormsandritualofthesociety,orfailingtoliveuptotheexpectationsassociatedwithacertainsocialstatus,constitutethelossofface.Theinclinationstodiffusedecision-makingresponsibilityandtoavoidsituationswhereamistakewillbecomeapublicembarrassmentshowChinesepeople’Sconcernforfacesaving.Asimportantassavingone’Sownface,givingfacetoothersishighlyvaluedandfrequentlypracticedinChina.Forinstance,whenaChineseisofferedapresentoraninvitation,heorsheissupposedtorefuseatfirst.Onlyaftersomepoliteto・and—frocantheofferbeaccepted.Thispracticecanbequiteconfusingforforeignerswhosimplyacceptanofferiftheyreallylikeit,orrejectitiftheydonot.Chinesedothispoliteto-and-frotoshowhowmuchtheyvaluetheofferandhowtheyappreciatethedonor’Skindness.Inthisway,theygivefacetothedonor.Moreover,therecipientisnotsupposedtoopenitinthefaceofthegiftgiver,partlyforthereasonthatopeningthegiftlatermaysavepotentialembarrassmentforbothpartiesincasethatthegiftisinappropriate.Manyatime,WesternpeoplefindtheChineseobliqueandmysteriousoftheirindirectnessandevasiveness.Infact,thedeeperreasonlyingbehindChinesepreferenceofanindirect,subtle,androundaboutstyleisthattlleywanttoavoidadirect20confrontationwiththeotherpartyorSOastosavetheother’Sface.ToChineseunderstanding,embarrassingoffendingothersbyexpressingdirectrefusalshouldbeaavoidedinanysocialinteractions,especiallyduringbenefitsbusinessnegotiationwherejointanandlong—termrelationshipisexpected.TheindirectwayofsayingrefusalissaveimportantwayfortheChinesepeopletofaceforbothnegotiatingparties.Wordswillconsideritlike‘‘I'mafraidthatIhavetofinish...’’‘‘Yes,lookslater’’aretypicalChinesewaystosay“no”.likely,but...’’‘‘WeWhentakingintoconsiderationthatChinaisacollectivisticculture,belongstothelligh—contextend,andvaluefaceverymuch,theauthorproposesthefirsthypothesis:onHI:ChinesenegotiatorsputmorevaluetheotherpartythanmaintainingcanagoodrelationshipwithWesterners,whichonbereflectedthroughChineseonindirectness,thebasesoftrustfriendship,longertimespentasinformalchattingandperceptionofnegotiation2.4.1.4relationshipbased.Monochromic(M-time)andPolychromic口-time)EdwardHalladvancedanotherclassificationoftimeorganizedtimeinoneasaformofcommunicmion.Heproposedthatculturesoftwoways:eitherMonochromic(M—time)orpolychromic(P—time).Asthewordmono—implies,M—timeculturesviewtimeTimeisaaslinearandsegmented.scarceresourcethatmustbefullyrationedandcontrolledthroughpresetorganizationschedulesatoneandappointments.Punctuality,goodandfocusononlyonethingtimearevalued.Ontheotherhand,peoplefromP-timeculturesfollowamoreleisurepaceandputpeopleandrelations,nottasks,atthedomorecenter.Theymayinteractwithmorethanonepersonorthanonethingatatime.Schedulesaresubjecttochangesandfollowedflexibly.OnthecontinuumofUnitedStatesculture.ThisM—andP—time,thedominantWesternculturessuchaastheandCanadaaretypicalcancauseM-timeculturesandChinamoreofinP.timedifferencemisunderstandingsSino—Westernbusinessinteractions.Americansvaluetimeverymuch,asisclearlyseeninthemetaphor‘'timeismoney”.Therefore,punctualityishighlyappreciated,especiallyinbusinesscontext.21Beinglateortokeepotherswaitingisseenasdisrespectfulorirresponsible。TotheAmericanunderstanding,timeoristangiblethuscanbedivided.Theystrictlyfollowatimescheduleplan.From8:00alnto10:00aln,thereisgroupondiscussionontopicA;from10:15to12:00,aconferenceofboardmembersonsubjectB.Whenitis10:00,timeisupforthegroupdiscussionandpeoplemoveregardlessofwhethertotheboardconference,anagreementisreachedornotfromthediscussion.However,theChinesepeopleemphasizemorethecompletionoftransactionsandtheinvolvementofpeopleratherthanarigidadherencetotheclock.Forthem,timeislessimportantthanalong-termrelationship.Inbusinessnegotiation,AmericansaresaidtopreferstartingbusinessrightawaywhiletheirChinesecounterpartsprefertospendmorewarming-uptime:gettingtoknoweachother,buildingmutualtrustandthelike,beforegettingdowntobusiness.AmericanbusinesspersonswhovisitChinaforthefirsttimewouldbetakenabackfactoriesorovertheirChinesepartners’hospitality:12-coursewelcomedinner,sight-seeing,visitingtalkingaboutthehistoriesandvaluesofbothcompanies.Dayafterday,theyareshownaround,talkingaboutnon-issuerelatedthings.Thoughwell-treatedandwarmlywelcomedeverywheretheygo,alltheyreallywantissomerealstuif,toreachonatositdownandtalkaboutsignedagreementassoonaspossibleSOthattheyCanmovetoanotherbusiness.ThisdifferenceinthepreferenceofhowtoconductabusinessCanbeasourceofmiscommunicationandmayleadthedeepculturalChineseasreasonstofailureofthebusiness.Withoutanunderstandingofbehindthebehaviors,theAmericansmightmisunderstandtheimpressionthattheevasive,notsincereindoingthebusiness,orworse,wastingtimeofbothparties;ontheotherhand,theChinesemaytooeagerformanAmericansareandaggressive,anduntrustworthy.timeorientationbetweenChineseConsideringthedifferencesinandWesterners,theauthorproposesthesecondhypothesis:H2:WesternersaremoretimesensitiveandmoreofM.timeorientedthantheChinese,whichisreflectedintheirattitudestowardpresetscheduleandvalueonpunctualityinbusinessnegotiations.Thisdifferenceintimeorientation22betweenChineseandWesternerscanbeonesourceofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiations.2.4.1.5OriginsofChineseCultureConfucianismWhenmentioningtheChineseculture,itisinevitabletoexamineConfucianism.acrossAsispointedoutbyTaylor,‘‘TheConfucianinfluencehasstretchedsweepofhistorythebroadfromfoundingtothecontemporaryage”(2004,p.3).Today,intotheConfucianismhasspreadoutofChinaandWesternworldtheworld.asisshownintheprosperousdevelopmentofConfuciusInstitutesacrossConfucianismadvocatesnormsofthecultureSOcorrectbehaviorsinaccordance、ⅣitlltheestablishedthatpeopleCanachievetheinnategoodness.Moreover,commitmenttosocialharmonyandconsidersproperConfucianismstressesadeepashumanrelationsthebasisofthesociety.PeopleperceivethemselvesaccordingtoastheirsocialrelationshipsandresponsibilitiesiSsimilartoopposedtotheindividualbeing,whichtheseloidentificationinaacollectivistculture.ThereisseriesofidealssetforthbyConfuciusthatstructuredhisthoughtofmaintainingaproperhierarchyinsocialrelationshipsamongfamily,communityandsuperiors.Amongthem,Li,whichincludesrituals,rites,conventionsandthelike,isthemostpertinenttopeople’Sbehaviorsandcloselyrelatedtolatterdiscussionoftheofdoingthepresentstudy.Liistheoutwardexpressionofgoodmanners,theprinciplethatrightthingattherighttime.Ithastodowith“rules’’ofharmonyfollowineverysocialinteraction.UndertheprescriptionofLi,etiquetteapersonshouldandritualssourcewerehighlyregardedinoftheancientChinaas“thehighestadministrativeduty,thecountry’Sstrength'’.ChinaestablisheditselfasLiyiZhibang(thenationofLi),anationthatvaluescourtesy,ritualsandceremonies.TodayfromtheChinesefollowsomebasicrulesofsocialbehaviorsderivedLicalledkeqi,whichprescribespolite,courteousandhumblebehaviors.However,keqisometimesismistakenbyWesternersashypocritical,ordishoneg.Wulun,the讯eConfucianism.Theguidelinesofcardinalrelationships,isanotherimportantconceptinfivearethosegoverningtherelationship23betweenrulerandminister,betweenfatherandson,betweenhusbandandwife,betweenelderandyoungerbrothers,andthoseintheintercourseguanxi,oneofthemostbetweenMeMs.ThesefiverelationsgraduallyevolvetoimportantaleculturaltraitsofChinesepeople.AsmoreandmorepeoplefromotherculturesengagedinpersonalandbusinessinteractionswimtheasChinese,guanxihasbecomeknowntheuniquefeatureofChinesecommunication.ManybusinesspersonshaverealizedthathavingreliableguanxiinChinahelpsnotonlyavoidredtapebutachievebetterrestsforlesscost.2.4.1.6OriginsofDominantWesternCulturesIndividualismThesinglemostimportantculturalvalueinthebroadlyspeaking,holdsthateachpersonisWestisindividualismwhich,differentunique,special,andcompletelySOfromallotherindividuals.ThevalueofindividualismisotherimperativecommandingasthatmanyWesternvaluesspringfromindividualism,suchequalityofbyoppommity,independence,initiativeandself-reliance.AhisorpersontendstobeonjudgedherOwnormeritsandpersonalachievement;todependsomeoneelseimpliesweaknesslossoffreedom.PragmatismPragmatismpresentscharacterizedwhatisrealresultsawayofdeterminingtruthonandresolvingdisputes.Itisbyanandinsistenceconsequences,utilityandpracticality.Topragmatists,trueWasjustifiedbyworkabilityandutility.Theybelievethattheandoutcomealethebasiccriteriaformeasuringthevaluesofanobjectorworthinessofdoingsomething.PragmatismemphasizedpracticalitystressedexperienceOVerfixedprinciples.TheAmericanpeoplestressingconsequencestofindthebestoverareofideas,andknownfortheircharacteristicofbeingpragmatic,dealingwithbusiness,theypreferprocess.Thus,whensolmiontOgetthingsdonewithoutdelay.Forthem,timeispreciousandshouldnotbewastedinthingsthatdonotresultinquickandtangiblebenefits.focusesinbusinessfriendship.originsofChinese24areTheirhardfacts,suchasquality,priceandprofitsratherthanintangibleConcerningthedifferentandWesterncultures,theauthorproposes.H3:CulturaldifferencesposesasonesalientsourceofmiscommunicationinSion-Western2.4.2Theoriesbusinessnegotiations.oninternationalBusinessNegotiation2.4.2.1TheFrameworkforGlobalBusinessTheFrameworkforGlobalbusinesspeoplewinglobalBusinessNegotiations(1991)createdtohelptoNegotiations(1991)wasnegotiations.Theframeworkfacilitatesnegotiatorsmakeandafterglobalintelligentdecisionsandtakeappropriateactionsbefore,duringtheirforeignnegotiationsbyenablingthemtopredictandinterprettheactionsofcounterparts.Theframeworkdistinguishesfourcomponents,eachrepresentingareakeyaspectofnegotiationprocess.Theindividualcomponentscomposedofoneormorevariables・arebelievedtoAltogether,therethesuccessoraretwelvevariablesinthisframeworkthatinfluencefailureofinternationalnegotiations.ThefourcomponentsandtwelvevariablesareshowninTable2—1:Table2.1TheFrameworkforGlobalBusinessVariables・Negotiations(A)1Components1.PolicyBasicconceptofnegotiation・・SelectionofnegotiatorsRoleofindividualaspirationsConcernwithprotocol・2.Interaction・Significanceoftypesofissue・ComplexityoflanguageNatureofpersuasiveargument・3.Deliberation・Valueoftime・Basesoftrust4.Outcome・IUsk-takingpropensityIntemaldecision—makingsystem・・Formofsatisfactoryagreementa‘‘Policy’’definesthevitalinterestsofcoursebusinessanddescribesthecustomaryofprotectingandpromotingthoseinterests.Astheword‘‘policy”suggests,itistoanation.theguidinglinesofanegotiation,justlikegovernmentpolicies1Source:Moran&Stripp.DynamicsofSuccessfulInternational25BusinessNegotiations.Houston:GulfPublishingCompany,1991,E92.“Interaction'’istheperiodofinformationexchangeduringwhichthenegotiatorsplayoffersgesturesthatandcounteroffers.Thisprocessinvolvesareastreamofacts,wordsandintendedtotopersuadetheotherparty.theprocessinwhichbothnegotiatingpartiesevaluatetheoftheircounterpartsandtheirownexpectations,‘‘Deliberation’’refersinteraction,adjusttheirunderstandinginanefforttoovercometheconflictinginterests.“Outcome”referstothef.inalunderstandingreachedbytheparties,eitherintheoraformofawrittenagreementmutualunderstandingthatbusinessisimpossible.Fortheconvenienceofnegotiatorstoofnegotiation,thetwelvevariablesareunderstandtheircounterpart’Sphilosophiesoverafurtherelaboratedspectrumrespectively;areforthesakeofTable2.2:ourfurtherdiscussion,thesetwelvespectnunsin仃oducedhereinTable2—2FrameworkforGlobalBusinessNegotiations(B)1Variables1.Basicconceptofnegotiation2.SelectionofnegotiatorsNegotiator’SprofileStrategic..————————啼synergisticTechnicalabili够+一socialskills3.RoleofindividualaspirationsOrganization..————啼selfFomal+————◆inf-onllal4.Concernwithprotocolofissue5.SignificanceoftypesSubstantive+_relationship-basedVerbal+—————◆nonverbal6.Complexityoflanguage7.NatureofpersuasiveargumentLogic●————————◆emotion8.ValHeoftime9.BasesoftrustStrict+——_rela)【edLaw・卜—————————卜friendship10.Risk-takingpropensity11.Internaldecision—makingsystem1Cautious+———◆adventurous2.FormofsatisfactoryagreementAuthoritative+_consensusExplicit●————_implicitthreeofthemthatAmongtheabovetwelvevariables,theresearchershallincorporateeightinthequestionnairesurveyandelaborateonmightabitdifficultto1Source:Moran&Stripp.DynamicsofSuccessfulInternationalBusinessNegotiations.Houston:GulfPublishing26Company,1991.p93.understandforreadersbymerelylookingatthename.SelectionofnegotiatorsThecriteriaofchoosingnegotiatorsaredissimilarfordifferentgroupsofpeople.canMoranandStrippreckonthatselectioncriteriatechnicalabilityorbroadlybecategorizedundersocialskills.SeeTable2-3.Table2—3SelectionofNegotiatorslTechnicalAbilitySocialSkillsAchievementScientificskillsLegaltrainingGeneralknowledgeAscriptionStatusPersonalattributesKinshipLanguagefluencyNatureofpersuasiveargumentSocialclassRegardingtothenatureofpersuasion,NorthAmericansandChinesediffergreatly.AmericansprefertoIndoingpersuadeandbepersuadedwithdata,hardfactsonandpastrecords.business,Americansrelylogicreasoning,provedbystatisticsofpreviousthefield.Gooddeals,reputationandimpartialcreditratingofthereputation,goodpriceandmaximumprofitsarewhatcompanyinAmericanslookfor.Ontheotherappealing.Theymayrefertohand,theChinesetendtorelyonintuitionandemotionalhappymemoriesofpastcooperation,ormembersfromtheotherwhomtheyregardasfriends.Iftheylikethepersonalityofthetocounterpartynegotiators,theywillbecooperativeandmorewillingBasesoftrustmakecompromises.Americanstendtobringabuildtheirtrustaonwrittendocuments.ManyU.S.negotiatorslengthycontractdraftandlawyertothebargainingtable.Theygenerallyproceedtodiscusstheproposedagreementclauseadvisereverytimewhenabyclause,andconsulttheirlegalquestionarises.WhileChinesenegotiatorsnegotiateonlytheconcretelargerframeworkandleavetheitemstooff-tablediscussion.1Source:Moran&Stripp.DynamicsofSuccessfu,InternationalBusinessNegotiations.Houston:GulfPublishing27Company,1991,E95.ChinesetendencytobuildtrustonfriendshipratherthanlawsdoesnotmeanthatgoodlegaladvicefromthelawyeristheroleofthenotimportantinChina,butthedifferenceliesinlawyersandinhowtheyshouldcontributetothenegotiatingprocess.Chinesenegotiatorsstressconciliationandcompromiseratherthanconflict.Theyprefertogetlegaladviceoffthenegotiatingtable.Hence,toChinese,theAmericanwayofbringingthelawyeralongatthenegotiatingtableandconsultingthelawyertermbycontracttermwhendiscussingdetailsimpliestheAmerican’Sdisbeliefintheirwhencounterpart’Sdeterminationtocarryouttheagreement.MiscommunicationoccursanAmericannegotiatorsuggeststakingthelawyeralongtothenegotiationtableforfurtherdiscussion.AccordingtoLaurenceJ.Brahm,thefirstthingnottodowhennegotiatinginChinaistobringthe“Youonlybringyourlawyeralong:lawyertoandthetablewhenyoureallydon’twanttodothedeala、ⅣitlltheChinesepartnerapart,’’explainedoneneedpoliteexcusetoallowtherelationshiptofallold“Chinahand”.“Whentheandbackoutwholethingbreaksapart,youiscitedCanalwaysblameitonthelawyergracefully谢masmile(asinFan,2005,p.52).2.4.2.2Graham’sfourstagesofnegotiationGrahamandSano(1987)developStageOne:non-taskdonotafour-stagemodelinbusinessnegotiations:eachotherbutsounding,inwhichnegotiatorsgetacquainted晰tlldiscussbusiness.StageTwo:task-relatedexchangeofinformation,whenthealternativesopentonegotiatorsoutlinetheirsubjectiveneedsandpreferencesandthem.StageThree:persuasion,whichinvolvesattemptsatinfluencingtheotherparty’Sneedsandpreferencesusingvariouspersuasivetactics.StageFour:concessionsandagreement,whichrefersofconcessions.totheprocessofsettlinganagreement,derivingfromaseriesGiventhevariablesdiscussedproposesthelasthypothesis:andnegotiationstagesgivenabove,theauthorH4:ChineseandWesternasnegotiatorsperceivedifferentlytowardsnegotiationonvariablessuchbasesoftrust,selectionofnegotiators,anddifferOccur.atwhichstagemiscommunieationismostlikelyto28ChapterThreeRESEARCHMETHODOLOGY3.1MethodologyBasically,theauthoradoptsaCROSS—culturecomparativeapproachtofindoutwhethertherearedifferencesbetweenChinesenegotiatorsandtheirasWesternbasesofofcounterpartsregardingtheperceptionofbasicnegotiationelementssuchtrust,formofagreement,selectionphenomenainofnegotiators,andthebusinessinterpretationmiscommunicationcross-bordernegotiations,giventhecommonmanifestationofculturaldifferencesofinternationalbusinessnegotiations.Inordertocarryoutthiscomparativestudy,theauthortakesacombinationofbothquantitativeandqualitativeapproaches.QuantitativemethodismainlyreflectedinthesourcesquestionnairesurveyofthepresentresearchandtargetedtoidentifytheofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiationsandtotestwhetherdifferencesstillexistinsomebasicnegotiationvariablesderivedfromtheGlobalFrameworkofInternationalBusinessNegotiationsthatwasputforwardmorethantwodecadesago.Meanwhile,theinterviewswimqualitativemethodhereinthisresearchtakestheformofunstructuredcountries.questionnaireparticipantsbothfromChinaandWesternTheseinterviews,aswitllotherqualitativemethods,areaimedtodiscoverin—depthinformationbehindthestructuredquestiommireitems,suchchoseaaswhytheparticipantalecertainoranswerorassignedtoacertainmark;whethertherethechoice;howtheyseeanypersonalexperiencespossiblereal-lifestoriesjustifytheseverityofeachsourceofmiscommunicationproposedinthequestionnaire.aTobespecific,theauthordesignedquestionnaireanddistributedittonegotiatorsbothhomeandabroadwhohaveinter-culturalbusinessnegotiationexperiences.Byanalyzingthedataattainedfromreturnedquestionnaires,theauthorexpectstoidentify29thesourcesofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiation.Thereafter,theauthorwouldswitchtothequalitativemethodandtrytoexplainwhyandhowtheitemssurveyedcouldresultinmiscommunication.3.2ResearchDesign3.2.1QuestionnaireDesignConsideringthescopeofthecurrentstudyaswellasthefactthattoillustrateculturalimpactsonthewholeprocessofnegotiationisalaborioustask,theauthordecidedtoexplorethemiscommunicationphenomenaincross—culturebusinessnegotiationsthroughtheperspectivesofeightoutofthetwelvevariablesfromtheFrameworkforGlobalBusinessNegotiations(seeTable2-2),includingselectionofnegotiators,decision-makingpower,natureofpersuasiveargumentation,timesensitivityandSOon.ThesevariablesareexaminedinthequestionnairesurveybytheformsofmultiplechoicesandLikertscalemarks.Generally,thequestionnairewasdesignedtogainfirst—handdataincludingthreecategoriesofmeasurement.Firstofall,theinfluenceofthepossiblefactorsleadingtomiseommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiationaremeasured、析thafive—pointscale(rangingfrom0to4),labeledfrom‘‘noinfluence’’(O)to‘‘greatinfluence’’(4).Secondly,theinclinationofnegotiatorstowardnegotiatingelementssuchasmannerofcommunication,perceptionoftime,basisoftrustandnatureofpersuasioninnegotiationetc.aremeasured、析thasix-pointscale(rangingfrom1to6),、Ⅳimthenumbers1and6tosignifythepolarsituationsrespectively.Therearealsosomesurveyquestionsintheformofmultiplechoices,tocheckandcomparethedifferencesinperceptionsandpracticesofsomebasicnegotiationelementsbetweenChineseandWesternparticipants.Thirdly,theauthorexaminesdemographicfactorslikegender,educationworkingexperiencesandlanguagefluencyinthequestionnaire.Byincludingsuchnon-culturalspecificquestionsintothequestionnaire,theauthorexpectstofindoutwhethertherewouldbesomesignificantrelationsbetweentheoccurrenceofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiationsandthenegotiator’Spersonalfactorsmentionedabove.30Furthermore,inordertoeliminateanypossiblemisunderstandingsresultingfrominsufficientEnglishreadingcomprehensioncapabilityauthorpreparedtwoversionsoftheChinesenegotiators,whomayConsideringtheoroftheChineseparticipants,thequestionnaire(EnglishandChinese)SOthatthemaynotspeakEnglish,wereallabletoparticipate.languagecapabilityoftheChinesenegotiators,theauthoraddedtwosurveyitemsintheChinesequestionnaire,oneisaboutthelanguagea11fluencyoftheparticipant,andnegotiationteam.theotheraboutthe丘equencyofincludinginterpreterinthe3.2.2SampleSelectionThegoalofsamplingistoconductresearchwithasmallnumberofparticipantswhoarerepresentativeofthepopulationaboutwhichtheresearcherwantstomakeconclusions.Incross-cultureresearch,however,duedistanceandlimitationofpersonaltoconfinementsofgeographictoselectatrulynetworks,itisfarmoredifficultrepresentativesampleandconveniencesamplesareoftenused,asdoesthepresentresearch.Thequestionnairesaredistributedtothoseindividualswhoarereadilyavailable,meetthesinglecriterionoftheresearchandmorerespond.importantly,arewillingtoThesinglecriterionhaveexperiencestoselectparticipantsofthebusinessquestionnairesurveyisthattheybeininter-culturalnegotiations.Tomorespecific,participantsshouldhaveengagedinbusinessnegotiationsbetweenChineseandNorthAmericans.However,outoftwoconsiderationstheresearchermodifiedthecriteriontoconcernenlargethesamplepoolbysomeextent.Thefirsttheauthortotheisthelimitedconnectionsofbusinessworldandtheresultingdifficultyinattainingquestionnairearesponses,whichmadeitnecessarytoloosenthecriterionandenlargethesurveypoollittlebittoincludetheEnglishspeakingWesterners.ThesecondconsiderationisthesimilaritiesexistingbetweenChinesecultureandthoseofEastandSouthAsiancountries,betweencountries,whichConfucianNorthAmericandominantcultureandthatoftheWesternEuropeanmadeitfeasibletoincludenegotiatingexperiencesbetweentheEastculturesandtheWestAnglo-Saxoncultures.Therefore,theresearcherdecidedtoincludenegotiatorwhohadexperiencesinbusinessnegotiation3lbetweenEastemAsiansandWesternEuropeans.Thatiswhythereparticipants,aswellasareBritishandGermannegotiationexperiencebetweenCanadiansandtheFilipinos.areAmongtheChineseparticipants,29samplesfromstate—ownedcorporationsspecializinginimportandexportbusinessesaroundtheworldandtherestareattainedthroughparticipantsfromrelativelysmallercompaniesbutallhaveinternationalbusinessexperience.TheEnglishversionsaredonebyindividualbusinessmen,eitheremployedincertainmultinationalcompaniesorself-employed,i.e.entrepreneurs.Thesequestionnaireswereadministeredwiththehelpoftheresearcher’SfriendsinCanadaandAmeric如throughemallsordistributionatcoffeebars.Theaverageyearsofexperienceininterculturalbusinessnegotiationis12.3amongtheChinesewhogavetheiryearsofexperienceparticipantsand14.5amongtheWesternparticipants.3.2.3DataColleetionMethodsThemostconllTlOnmethodsofdatacollectionincross.culturalresearcharequestionnaires,followedbyinterviews.Theseresearchtwomethodsareexactlywhatthepresentpresentstudyisutilized.Themajordatacollectedforthefromthearequestionnairedesignedtosurvey.Thethreecategoriesofsurveyitemsinthequestionnaireanswerthefollowingresearchquestions:existininterculturalor(1)Doesmiscommunicationdoes,onwhatoccasionsbusinessnegotiations?Ifitatwhichnegotiationstagedoesmiscommunicationmostlikelytooccur?(2)Whatarethepossiblecausesofmiscommunication?(3)Whatarethe(4)Howconsequencesofmiscommunication?donegotiatorsovercomemiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiations?Meanwhile,theauthorasconductedunstructuredinterviews谢thsourcesomeparticipantsfromthesupplementaryandexplanatorytothestatisticscollectedquestionnaireresponses.Duetothefactthattheinterviewsconductedinthepresentaresearchplaysoniystructuredsecondaryrole,theauthordoesnottorecordseethenecessitytodesignnoQ&Asessiontoeverysinglewordoftheinterviews.Thus,thereistranscriptcodeorvideotapesto32Theauthorsimplyconductedsomeon—siteinterviewswiththeparticipantswhenoraftertheyfinishedthequestionnaireandwrotedownsomekeypointsforlaterTherefore,dataanalysisuseinsurveyanalysis.responsesfromthequestionnairecombinedwithelaborationprovidedbyintervieweesnegotiationcasesareintheformofpersonalreflections,real—lifefullycapitalizedtoexplorethemiscommunicationphenomenaininterculturalbusinessnegotiations.Inthediscussionparts,theauthortriestoexplainthestatisticalfindingswiththelightofthetheoreticalframeworkdescribedinthelastpartofChapterTwo.33ChapterFourRESULTSANDDISCUSSION4.1ResultsonDataAnalysisfromQuestionnaireResponsesTheauthoraltogetherdistributed100questionnaires,halfoftheChineseversionandhalfinEnglish.Amongthereturned85questionnaireresponses,44areinChineseand41inEnglish.on4.1.2StatisticResultsTheauthorBasicElementsRelatedtoNegotiationstarts谢Ⅱlthefirstcategoryofvariablesinthetoquestionnaire,thatis,thebasicelementsrelatednegotiation,includinglanguageskills,selectionofSOon.negotiators,natureofpersuasion,mannerofcommunicationand4.1.2.1LanguageSkillsTheChinesenegotiatorswhoparticipatedintheusesurveyasshowedanaveragelanguagefluencyof4.3with5meaning“CallEnglishworkinglanguage”.Thataninterpretertocouldexplaintosomeextentwhytheaveragefrequencyofbringingnegotiatingtableisonly2.78,with6reasonssignifying“usually”and1“never”.Amongthechosentoexplainwhytakinganinterpreter,38.23%oftheparticipantschoseA‘‘languageassistance”,32.35%chosetoshowformality”,andatB“thesignificanceofthenegotiationdemandsaninterpreter20.59%chosebothAandaB.Thisresultshowsthataaninterpreterspeaker.‘‘Tothenegotiationtableplaysarolenotmerelyconfinedtolanguagehaveprofessionalinterpretertranslatethelanguageinsteadofspeakingourtheotherparty’SmothertonguedirectlybyusenegotiatorssavesOurdignity,becauseonewhichlanguagetosignifiesthebargainingpowerofthetwoparties,’’saidoftheexperiencednegotiatorstheresearcherinterviewed.Further,theresearcherlearnedfrompreviousstudiesthatifthenegotiatorsknowthereasonsother’Slanguagebutstilluseaninterpreter,oneoftheistogivethemselvesmoretimetocontemplate.totlliI呔34outabetterwayto‘'playtheballback'’.Thisisespeciallythecaseinpoliticalsettings.TwoparticipantschoseC‘‘togiveone’Sownsidemoretimetothinkbyusinganinterpreter'’showsthatsuchpracticedoesexist,thoughmaybenotascommoninbusinessasinpolitics.4.1.2.2TimeSensibilityAstohowmuchtimeisusuallyspentoninformalchatting,46.51percentChineseparticipantschoseA“lessthan10minutes”,while29.03percentWesternparticipantschoseA;51.16percentChinesechoseB“10to30minutes”comparedto38.71percentofWesternparticipants.NoChineseparticipantschoseC‘'morethan30minutes’’but32.26percentoftheWesternoneschosethisone.ThisisdifferentfrompreviousacademicassumptionstllatChinesepeoplefocusmoreonrelationship-buildingandalewillingtospendmoretimeestablishingpersonalties.Moreover,theWesternparticipants’choiceofCseemsagainsttheWesternperceptionoftime,thatis,timeismoneyandshouldnotbewastedonseeminglyunfruitfulactivitieslikechatting.Withthispuzzlein111ind,theauthorinterviewedsomeparticipants,bothChineseandWesterners.OneCanadianparticipantnotedonhischoiceofC,“UsuallyItake30plusminutestoestablishalevelofbackgroundintimacyandassesstheindividual’Sdecisionmakingprocessbasedonmethodofdisclosurerelativetobasicquestions.’’AnotherCanadiannoticedthatheusuallyspenttimeobservingtheotherparty,throughbothverbalandnonverbalclues,SOastogainmoreinsightsintothenegotiators’personalcharacteristicsfromthecounterparty.Besides,theresultcouldbebiasedbypersonaltraits.ThereisoneCanadianparticipantwholovestalkingonandon,andhechoseCbecausehehimselfCangoontalkingformorethan30minutes,notcountingthetimeforhiscounterparttorespond.ForChineseparticipantswhoarefromHall’SP-timecontext,andwhomwerereposedtospendmoretimeoninformalchattingandestablishingpersonaltiesbeforegettingdowntobusiness,thereasonswhythereisnoparticipantchoseCmaybeasfollows:theyareundertimepressurefromthecompanytoreachanagreementwithinadeadline;ortheyhavealreadyhadseveralpreviousdealsdone谢mtheotherpartySOthatthereisnotmuchneedtospendlongtimegettingtoknowtheotherparty.Another35reasonmighthavesomethingtodowiththechangesinrecentyearsinChina,afterChina’Sopening—uppolicyandthetrendofChinesecompaniesgoingabroad.Duringthisprocess,ChineseperceptionoftimeandbusinesspracticesareintemationalizedandtheChinesebusinessmenestablishedastrongsenseoftimescarcity.Theytendnottospendtoomuchtimeoninformalchattingbutenterbusinessspecificsassoonaspossible.Besides,onemorereasontoexplainthediscrepancybetweentheoreticalpredictionsandtheactualquestionnaireresultsisthat,participantshavedifferentunderstandingtowardinformalchattinginbusinessnegotiation.Throughshortinterviewswitlltheparticipantsafterthequestionnairesurvey,theauthorfindsthatChineseparticipantsperceiveinformalchattingasaskingtheotherpartyabouttheirtrip,theirimpressionofthecity,foodorwhether,whichcannottakeverylongtotalkabout.However,asisnotedbyoneChinesenegotiatorwhohas25yearscross-culturenegotiatingexperiences,thechattingbetweenpartieswhohaveakeadyestablishedpersonaltieswouldbelongeraSthetopicsunderdiscussionCanbeexpandedtosports,worldsituation,globaleconomicoutlooketc.,whichdemandmorethoughtsandinvolvemoretUlTISofconverstionalexchanges.Undersuchcontext,theinformalchattingusuallyservesthepurposeofthenegotiationinacloseway,becausenegotiatorscangraspinformationrelatedtothenegotiatingitems.Forinstance,whenonepartycasuallymentionswhetherIsraelwillstartawar谢thIran,thisrelatestothenegotiationinthesensethatifwarbreaksout,theoilsupplyfromIranwillbesuspendedthusaffectingthetransportationcostandresultinthefluxinpricesundernegotiation.4.1.2.3AttitudestowardScheduleTheChineseparticipantsshowanaverageof3.51,谢tll1refersto“strictlyfollow'’and6“flexible”,whileWesternparticipantsshowasimilaraveragenumber3.45,whichmeansthatonaverage,theChineseareonlyalittlemoreflexiblewhencarryingouttheschedulesetbeforethenegotiation.Thedifferencebetweenthetwogroups’responsesshownintheactualsurveyresultismuchsmallerthanpredictedbYscholarsthatWestemersfromtheM.timecultureswillstrictlyfollowtheschedule,adheretopreset36plansandarecommittedtotasks.Meanwhile,ChineseparticipantsshowatendencylessflexiblethanpredictedbyscholarsthatpeoplefromP・timecultureswillchangeplansoftenandeasily,andarecommittedtopeopleandrelationshipsratherthantasks.Further,therearefiveChineseparticipantswhochose1“strictlyfollow'’.Tryingtofigureoutwhy,theresearcherfmdsoutthatthesefiveparticipantshave19.25yearsofinterculturalbusinessnegotiationexperiencesonaverage,andareallmales.Thus,theresearcherattemptscounterpartsfromtheschedulealteringtoarguethatlongyearsofexperiencesandinteractionswimWesternaculturehavealteredtheseparticipants’attitudestowardandtheyone’Sadoptedmoreintemationalizedperception.Thesameregime,i.e.ownattitudetowardsscheduleundertheinfluenceoftheircounterparts,theWesternparticipants.Surveyresultsshowthatthereareevenoneseemstoworkaswelloneightparticipantschose5andchose6“flexible,accordingtothesituation”.4.1.2.4SelectionofNegotiatorsAmajorityofWesternparticipantschoseA“bybusinesscapability”(61.29%)whileonly23.25percentofChineseparticipantschosethesameanswer.ItseemsthatChinesepreferacombinationofmorethanonecriterion,witll25.58percentchoseABCinand20.93percentchoseAB.AscommentedSuccessfulInternationalBusinessNegotiations,theChineseemphasize‘'politicalloyaltyduringtimesofturbulenceandexpertiseduringtimesofrelativenegotiatorsmorecalm'’(p.130),Chinesecompaniesselectinternationalandmoreaccordingtobusinessexpertisethanpoliticalcorrectness.Thoughtherearestill13.95%Chineseisclearthatnegotiators4.1.2.5WorkingoutaareparticipantschoseB‘‘byrank/status”,thetrendselectedbybusinesscapabilityandexpertise.WrittenAgreementofChineseparticipantschoseB‘‘afterthenegotiation’’Whilethevastmajority(93.02%),only61.29percentofWesternersdid,诵th12.9percentchoseA“duringthenegotiation”andauthorfindsclarifyon25.8percentchosebothAandB.Throughfurtherinterviews,theoutthatforthosewhochoseA,theymeantdraftingtheagreement,tosomekeyitemssuchasprice,type,andtermsofpayment,insteadoffinalizingtheagreement.OneCanadianparticipant37elaborated,“Bydoingsomewrittenworkduringthenegotiationhelpstodiscussvdththeotherpartyandmakesureweareontrack.Then,ifnegotiationshavebeensuccessful,afullwrittenagreementispreparedforsigningbythepartiesafterthenegotiation'’.BychoosingB“afterthenegotiation”,participantswerethinkingofsigningalegitimateagreement,whichisthecommonpracticehappeningafterthenegotiationbothinChinaandinNorthAmerica.4.1.2.6PeriodsWhenMiscommunicationMostLikelytoOccurMoreWesternparticipantschoseD“concessionandagreement'’,accountingfor38.71percentbutnoChinesechoseDalone,only5participants(11.63%)choseacombinationofCandD.fortheChineseparticipants,thelargernumbergoestoBCcombination(32.56%)madChinese23.26percentchoseC“Persuasion”.Onthewhole,theaparticipantsdemonstratedhigherconcemoverthemiscommunicationproblemsinthewholenegotiationprocess,whichisreflectedintheirresponsesthat60.47percentparticipantschosemorethanoneperiodandthereareeventwopeoplewhochoseallthefourperiods.Ontheotherconcentratedperiod.4.1.2.7onhand,theWestemers’responsesaremorepersons(6.45%)chosemorethanoneCandD(70.97%)andonly2MannerofCommunicationFortheChineseparticipants,theaveragenumberonaoftheirperceptionontheirowncommunicationmannersis2.88continuumof1onto6,with1signifies‘‘direct'’and6signifies“indirect”.Theperceptiontheircounterparty’Scommunicationmannersis2.02,abitmoretowardthe“direct'’side.Fromthetwonumberswecaninfertwopoints:first,onaveragetheChineseparticipantsofthepresentresearchperceivetheirmannerofnocommunicationmoredirectlythanpreviousbothareontheoreticalassumption;second,thereisbigdifferenceperceivedbetweentheChinesecommunicationstyleandthatofthethe“direct”sideofthescale.Westerners,asInattemptingtoexplaintheseresults,theresearcherfindsthatChinesenegotiatorshavereadilyacceptedthedirectwayofdirectpracticeco:nmunicationafterenoughexposuretothatfactthatthesevenoftheircounterparts.Thisissupportedbytheparticipantswhochose1(direct),onaveragehavemorethan15yearsofintemationalabusinessnegotiationindirectmannerasexperiences.Moreover,femaleparticipantstendtoadoptmorereflectedinthesurveyresponsesinthatamongthethree38participantswhochose5(usuallyindirect)aretheindirectallfemalesandwomenparticipantsusuallychoseanumberonside(1argerthan31.FortheWesternparticipants,theaveragenumberoftheirownperceivedmannerfortheirofcommunicationis2.29,andtheaveragenumbercounterpartsis3.84.Thisdemonstratesthatthereissomeperceivedsignificantdifferencebetweentheculturesintermsofcommunicationtwomanner.The%stemersconsiderthemselvesdirectandtheirChinesecounterpartsindirect.ThiscontradictswitlltheChineseparticipants’areselfperceptionthattheydirectonthewhole.ThereasonmightbethattheChineseparticipantspreferadirectapproachofcommunicationareSOthattheyprojectthemselvesinthatway,whileinfact,theystillindirectintheeyesoftheirareWesterncounterparts.Nevertheless,ChinesenegotiatorsfromotherEastAsianstillperceivedasmoredirectthanthosecountrieslikeSouthKoreaandJapan.OneCanadianmarked3onaforChinaand4forSouthKoreaindirect.4.1.2。8BasisofTrustcontinuumof1to6rangingfromdirecttoChinesepeoplearefamousfortheiremphasisonrelationshipSOandChineseguanxiisworldknown.However,thesurveyresultsdidnotshowmuchofChinesepeople’Sto6relationshipcomplex.Anaverageof3.49onaspectrumof1rangingfromlawsandwrittenagreementtofriendshipwiththeotherparty,statesthatChineseparticipantsslightlyprefertobuildtheirtrustonlawsandwrittenagreement;whiletheSOWesternoftheparticipantsdemonstrateameanof3.17,notfarfromthemeannumberChineseresponses.PreviousstudiesarguethatChinesepeopletrustin.groups,andprefertodobusinesswithsomeonetheyareHowever,theempiricaldatashowsthatquitefamiliar诵th,evenabetterwitllafriend.largeportionoftheparticipantsbasetheirtrustonwrittendocumentsastheNorthAmericansdo.noticedthatChineseparticipants、耐tllmoreorMoreover,theresearcherofexperiencesorthan20yearslessthan5yearsexperiencestendtochoose12advocatinglawsandwrittenagreementtobasetheirtrust.Forthefirstgroup,possibletoexplanationwouldbethattheyareusedtheintemationalnegotiationpracticethatlegaltoodocumentsarethebestguaranteeofthenegotiationoutcomeandrelationshipsare39changeabletorelyon.Forthesecondgroup,thenotreasonmightbethatthesepeopledohavemuchfirst-handnegotiatingexperienceandarestillguidedbythetipsfromaretextbooksthatwrittendocumentstenyearsexperiencemorereliable.Chineseparticipantswithonseventomarkthehighestnumbertherelationshipside(5or6).Thismaybebecausetheyhavemaintainedtime—provenrelationshipswiththeirbusinesspartnersandareattheprimetimeofenjoyingthebenefitsbroughtalongbythoserelations.4.1.2.9NatureofPersuasionPreviousstudiescontendthatEastemAsianspaymoreattentiontotheemotionalleveloftheparticipantsinvolvedinarelationshipandappealnottomoretoemotionalfeelings.However,thesefmdingsseemworkfortheChineseparticipantsansurveyedinthepresentresearch.Thequestionnaireresultsshow4.4fortheChineseaveragenumberofparticipants,with1signifies‘‘emotional’’and6‘‘logic’’,whichameansthenegotiatorsperceivethepersuasiveargumentinlogic—orientednegotiationtobemorethanemotion-oriented.Meanwhile,thethanthatoftheChinese.averagenumberoftheWesternresponsesis4.2,abitsmallerOnethingthatisthesameamongtheChineseandtheWesternresponsesis,femaleparticipantsreportedatendencytowardemotionalpersuasion.Amongthefourfemalechose2Westernparticipants,tworesponsesonandtheotherschose3.AmongthenineChinese2or3,sevenaregivenbyfemaleparficipants.Besides,therehisreasonisoneCanadianparticipantwhochoseboth1and6andprovidesas“bothlogicandemotionsCanbepersuasiveiftheyareusedproperlyintherightsituation”.4.1.2.10FrequencyofBringingOnChineseaaLawyertotheNegotiatingTableLikertscaleof1to5,where1workedoutameans“never'’andmean5means“always”,thethan2participantsjointlyof2.16,abitmorefrequent“rarely”.Inexplanationfortheirchoices.thosewhochose4“usually’’statedtheirreasonssuchas‘‘enlightenUSoftheotherparty’SlawsandonregulationslegalSOastosaveUSfromgettingintolegaltraps’’,or‘‘toconsultandadvisementionedtheimportanceofhavingbeforeaissues’’,andsomeoneanagreementdisputesinlawyertogothroughthedetailsofsigningitinordertowipeoutanyambiguitiesthatmight40causeimplementation.Oneparticipantnotedtheirreplaceableroleofpartiesarealawyerwhenthetwodiscussingrevisiontosomeitemsinana黟eement.ConsideringthefrequencychoicesandexplanationgivenbyortheChineseorparticipants,theanagreementauthorneedsconcludesthatonlywhendisputeslegalissuesappearwhenfinalizingorrevision,alawyerwillshowupatthenegotiatingtable.Othertimes,alawyerisusuallynotincludedinthenegotiationteam.TheaveragefrequencygivenbyalltheWesternparticipantsis2.69,largerasthanthatoftheChineseparticipants.However,thedifferenceisnotpreviousstudieswhichsuggestthatnegotiatingtablelargeaspredictedintotheWesternnegotiatorstendtobringalawyerandconsultthelawyerfromtimetotimeduringthenegotiationabouttoconlmonbusinessissueslikeprice,qualityandtermsofpayment,notpreferenceofconsultingtheirlawyerInmentiontheirtermbytermwhenworkingoutcontractdetails.answeringthefollowingopen-endedquestion(Ifyoudoorbringalawyer,inwhatsituationwhatrolewotfldheorsheplay?),mostparticipantsrelatedtheirlogictotheaneedforlegaladvice,“limitedtolegalinputonly”,aspointedoutbYparticipant,“notaCanadianformalnegotiatorwhocannegotiateprice,quantityandotherkeyaitems”.Onefamiliarparticipant’Slocallawsanswersumsupthepoint,“InforeignsettingwhereIaat/1notwithandcustoms1wouldchoosetohavealawyerparticipateiftheterms.Thatismymatteroflawispertinent.1wouldnot埘nglawyertonegotiatejob.’’Nevertheless,therearesomeparticipantsnotingthattableisnotmerelyaalawyeratthenegotiatinglegaladvisor.‘‘Mainlylegalbutsheisverysmartandweincludeaherinstrategydiscussionsalso”,oneparticipantmarked.Anotherstatedthatcouldbelawyeranastuteobserverbesidesofferinglegaladvice.ACanadianwhosenegotiatingpartnersaremainlyfromaEasternEuropeancountriesrevealedthatsometimestheytooklawyerasacounterstrategyandtheagainsttheotherCzechparty,‘‘MostofmybusinessisconductedinRussiaRepublic.Bothcountrieshavedifficultbureaucraciesandinbothesp.Russiantheyoftentryintimidationandwalkingoutofmeetingsastactics.’’ItseemsthattakingalawyertothenegotiatingtableisnotausualpracticeoftheWesternersengagedininterculturalbusinessnegotiation.Iftheydotakeone,theroleofthelawyerismorethanlegaladvisor.4.1.3IdentifiedSourcesofTheauthorMiscommunicationtoattemptsameasuretheseriousnessof11possiblesourcesofmiscommunicationwithLikenscaleofOto4(0means“noinfluence”,and4means“greatinfluence”).Initially,theauthorintendedtopresentthestatisticalresultsofeachpossiblesourceonebyone,butfoundthatsomeofthesourcesweregivensimilartomarksbetweenChineseparticipantsandWesterners.Therefore,theauthordecidedpresentthesesourcesinchartsandtherestinseparateparts.sourcesOutoftheelevenpossiblesevenofmiscommunication,theresearcheridentifiedthatreceivedsimilarresponsesfromthearetwogroupsofparticipants.ThestatisticalresultsshowninFigure4-1andFigure4.2:Figure4—1ComparisonofChinese-Westernquestionnaireresponses(A)4.1.3.1LanguageFluencyBoththeChineseaverage3.3andasaandWesternparticipantsmarkedhighonthisitem,withChineseWestern3.5,whichsuggeststhatbothgroupsregardofmiscommunication.“Ifyoucannotalanguagefluencythehighlypossiblecauseunderstandlanguage,howcanWesternpossibleyounegotiate?’’commentedbyaChinesenegotiator.responsesrankbithigherthanthatoftheChineseparticipants,onereasonisthatmostinternationalnegotiationsareconductedinEnglish,andthereishigherchancefortheotherpartywhosemothertongueisnotEnglishto42miscommunicatemastertheorunder-communicatetheirideas.TheChinesemighttlliI墩theylanguagewell(thusthinkinglanguagealessseriousarecauseofmiscommunication)butwhenperceivedbythenativespeakers,theregiventhefactthatlanguageproblemsinunderstanding,especiallyandculturearesocloselyrelated.Theauthorwillelaborateonthispointinmoredetailsinthefollowingdiscussionpart.UnderqualifiedinterpretersCanmorethanonecausemiscommunication,aswaspointedoutbyparticipant.ACanadianbusinesswomanonwhooftennegotiates、ⅣiththeChinesetoldtheresearcher,“Imustrelyverygoodbutonetheinterpreter’Scapability.Mostnothavebeendidcausesomemisunderstandingthatwascaughtuntilagreementswereexchanged.’’4.1.3.2Cultural,PoliticalandHistoricalBackgroundsAgain,bothgroupsdemonstratehighmarksonthisfactor丽msimilarmeannumbers,thatis,Chineseaverageis3.52andWestern3.55.Withmanyyearsofexperiencesininterculturalbusinessnegotiation,theseparticipants,bothChineseandWesterners,knowveryinfluenceonwellhowcultural,politicalandhistoricaldifferencesCanexertthenegotiationprocess,includingthepreliminarystageoffamiliarizationawitlleachother.OneAmericanintervieweedescribedhispersonalexperiencewitllChinesemanufacturer.ThemanufacturerfromhispotentialpaidavisittotheUnitedStates、航t11thepartner.Theinterviewee,asinvitationAmericanbusinessrepresentativeofhiscompany,guidedtheChinesebusinessmantoHooverDam,toshowthehost’Shospitalityandfriendliness.Whenstandinginfrontofthedam,theChinesesimplycommented,“Oh,it’Sjustadam.InmyhometownintheSouthofimaginehowastonishedtheChina,wehavemanydamslikethis.’’YourepresentativewaswhenheadngthisCanAmericanblamedaboutandhowhiscompanywouldthinkofthisChinesebelessmanufacturer,boastful,ungratefulmaybe.However'thisChinesemightconsideringthepossibilitythathedidHooverDam,oneofthemostnotknowthebackgroundknowledgebrillianthumanprojectsduringitsnothatemployedmanyadvanced,Hooverground—breakingtransmittingwhattheirtechnologiesconstruction.WithoutDamelectricpower,therewouldbehaveaccomplishedLasVegas.Americanpeopleareproudofproudtocountrymenandtheyare43showittovisitorsfromothercountries,justastheChinesepeopleliketoshowtheworldtheGreatWallofChina.Oneparticipanttheyarecommented,“[Duejustactingout.’’toculturaldifferences]HardtoknowwhentrulyseriousorDerivingfromthesbovestatisticalfindingshypothesisthreethatculturaldifferencesdoesfromthesurvey,weanacanaddressofposehighly—possiblecausemiscommunicationinSino-Westernbusinessnegotiations.4.1.3.3TheOtherFiveFactorsFigure4—2ComparisonofChinese-Westernquestionnaireresponses(B)FromFigure4-2,wecanseethattechnicalskillslikebusinesscapacity,familiarityaswithbusinessspecifics,legaltrainingetc.andsocialskillssuchpatient,respectfulandbeingtotheoccurrenceanstayingcalmandattentivelisteneretc.areperceivedtobehighlyrelatedofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiations.Afteronreviewingtheparticipants’explanationswithoutthesetwoitems,theauthorconcludesthat,technicalskills,youdonotknowwhattonegotiateandwhattonegotiatefor;notknowhowtonegotiateandcanhardlyachievewhatwithoutsocialskills,youdoyouwant.Howtoperceivethetypesofissuesundernegotiationisalsogivenhighimportancebybothgroups.Nevertheless,theirindividualperceptionsaredifferent.Westernerstendtoregardnegotiationsastask--relatedandfocusonproblem..solving;anwhileChinesepeopletakenegotiationsmoreofpeople—orientedandput44emphasisonrelationship-building.ThatexplainswhythetwogroupsperceivethisfactorashavingK曲potentialtocausemiscommunication.Educationalbackgroundislessrelatedtomiscommunicationwitllthemeannumbersofbothgroupslowerthan3.Thoughformalschooleducationisimportant,“streetsmarts”,commonsensesandself-learningthroughreadingorexperiencesseemtobemorevaluedinthebusinessworld.Moreover,someWestemersnoticedthatpeople、^,imhighereducationaremorelikelytogetstuckinacademicstudiesandcutofffromtherealworld.Theymaybebookish,lackinnovation,andhavelittlesenseofhowtodobusinessintherealworld.Therefore,theparticipantsdidnotperceivethatnegotiatorswithvariouseducationalbackgroundsmustencountermiscommunication.Onaverage,Chineseparticipantsgavealowernumber(2.7)thanthatoftheWestemparticipants(2.86).OnepossibleexplanationcouldbethathighereducationinChinaislessadvancedandsystematicthanthatintheWest,SOthatpeoplewithverydifferenteducationdegreesmaynotdiffertoomuchintheirbusinesscapabilityorknowledgerepertoire.Timesensibilityturnsouttohavemuchlessimpactonmiscommunicationthantheauthorthoughtbefore,withChineseresponseshavingameanof2.36andWestem2.17.Asisshowninthefirstpartofthestatisticalresults,ChineseandWesternnegotiatorsaregettingcloserintheirperceptiontowardsschedule,andpunctuality.Therefore,timeissueislesslikelytocausemiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiation,asisdemonstratedinthetwogroups’responses.DespitetheitemsdiscussedabovethatreceivedsimilarresponsesfromboththeChineseandWesternparticipants,thereareseveralfactorsthatreceivedquitedivergentresponsesfromthetwogroups.4.1.3.4BusinessEtiquetteItseemsthatChineseparticipantsconceivedbusinessetiquettealessersourceofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiationthanisperceivedbytheirWesterncounterparts,withmeannumbersof2.16and2.9respectively.Informedbyfurtherinterviews谢tllsomeoftheparticipants,theauthorattemptstoprovideanexplanation.EasternAsiancountries,especiallyJapanandChinaareknownfortheir45formalityandcourtesy,bothinsociallifeandbusiness.However,forpeoplefromNorthAmerica,especiallytheAmericans,beingcasualandcomfortableistheirrule,eveninbusinesscontexts.ItisnotunconlmonforAmericansandtotaketheirtiesoffaftersittingacrossdownatthenegotiationtable,totosstheirbusinesscardspartywhileChineseandJapaneseusuallygivethetabletotheothertakenamecards、Ⅳithbothhandsandcarefullyputthemencounteredonthetableforlaterreference.Therefore,theWesternersmighthaveofmiscommunicationsimplybecauseoftheircarelessnessmanycaseswithpolitenessandetiquetteandlearnthroughnegativeexperiencehowimportantitistorespectandfollowsomeformalandcourteous,seebusinessetiquette.Ontheotherhand,theChinese,beingpoliteetiquettelessrelevanttomiscommunieationinbusinessnegotiationsimplybecausethisistheiroftenpracticedculturalbehavior.4.1.3.5DecisionMakingaPoweronThereexistslargedifferencebetweenChineseandWesternresponsesthisitem,theformerpresentinganaveragenumberof2.2andthelatter3.69.IntheperceptionoftheChineseparticipants,everymajoratnegotiatorhasbeenauthorizedtotomakedecisionswithincertainrangerightthenegotiatingtable,withoutreportinghomeofficeforpermission.Withoutsuchkindofauthorization,nonegotiationCanbepossible.Besides,themajornegotiatoroftheteammustbesomeonewhoknowsthebusinessSOwellthatheorsheknowswhatworksbestforthecompany’Sinterestandnotseewon’tmakesillymistakeslikesellingbelowthecost.Therefore,theChinesedodecision-makingpowerasasignificantfactorthatwouldcausemiscommunication.EasternAsianwayofOnthecontrary,theWesternersperceivetheChineseordecisionmakingquitedifferentfromthatoftheirown.CollectivisticcultureslikeChinausuallymakedecisionsbasedonconsensus,whichwouldtakemuchcalllongerthandecisionsmadebyonlyafewseniormanagersandwhichcanbereallyfrustratingtoWesterners.SometimesdecisionthedecisionmakingprocessbeSOhierarchicalthattherealmakerorisofSOhighpositionanddoesnotattendthenegotiationprocess,butonmakinghisherdecisionbasedthereportoftheactualnegotiators.Asoneparticipantnoted,“Itismyexperiencethatagreementsoftenseemtomissthekeypointsbecauseofthis.’’4.1.3.6Non-verbalBehaviorsThedifferencebetweenChineseandWesternresponsesisevenlargeronthisitemis3.24.thanbusinessetiqueRe.Chineseaveragenumberis1.75whiletheWestern’SJudgingfromthenumbers,weasacaninferthatChinesesourceparticipantsdidnotregardnon-verbalbehaviorssignificantofmiscommunicationbutWesternparticipantsAsisseeitasahighlypossibleSOurCe.intextbooksisorstatedmanytimesacademicpapersimportantaoninterculturalincommunication,non-verbalbehaviorancomponenthumancommunicationbehaviorsandbeingwithitsemployeesdifferentasiscriticalinunderstandingtocertainculture.However,thenonverbalcluesaresubtleandhardcatch.IntheWest,aprofessionhascomeintoinformpeopleofvariousnonverbalcluesinlikebodymovement,consultantstocultures.Theyrecordandanalyzenonverbalbehaviorsblinkratetoneofvoices,eyecontactandetc.,andthencategorizeandorganizethesebehaviorsintosystemsbeforetheystarttoteachpeople.ConsideringtthefactthattheWesternresponsesaregivenbybusinessprofessionalsorfromrelativelyupscaleoncommunities,whoarebeaereducated,well—readhaveattendedseminarsnonverbalcommunication,itisreasonabletoarguethattheWesternparticipantsareonmoreawareoftheroleofnonverbalbehaviorsandhavenonverbalbehaviorsCancauseabeaerunderstandinghowcommunicationproblemsininterculturalacommunicationthisitem.OnthantheirChinesecounterparts.Therefore,theyassignedhighermarkontheotherhand,maybetheChineseparticipantshavenotrealizedtheimportanceofnonverbalcluesthusattributingmiscommunicationproblemstoothersourcesinsteadofthisone.4.1.3.7OtherpossiblesourcesofmiscommunicationBesidestheelevensourceslistedbytheresearcherinthequestionnaire,someparticipantsthoughtsonwrotedowninthegivenspaceattheendofthequestionnairetheirthisOwnsubject.Somearerelatedtothenegotiationstrategies.Forinstance,theaotherpartymaychangetheirstatementatthelastminute,raisingthepricebyoragreatdeal,orthetwopartieshavedifferentpaceofnegotiatingdifferentunderstandingofthepurposeofthemeeting.Somearerelatedtothepersonaltraitsofthenegotiators.47Forexample,withrespecttotheattitudesofthenegotiators:aretheysincereflexibleororcunning,stubborn,cooperativeorintimidating?4.2DiscussionInthissection,theauthorattemptstoelaboratesurveyitems,toexplorethedeepercultural4.2.1DirectnessandIndirectnessChineseAccordingtoorreasonsonthestatisticaldataofsomebehindthephenomena.SouthandEastAsianpeopleareknownfortheirindirectness.oneintervieweewhohadmorethan25yearsnegotiationexperienceswithSouthAsianbusinesspersons,‘‘Itisoftendifficulttoknowwhetheryouhavediscussion.GenerallyifyoudonotgetpeopleIalreadyonaayesaoranotoananlitemofsure‘‘yes”,itisanknow,Iliketohavemeetinginterculturalconsultantwithmeforno.UnlessIguidancedealinginthesecultures.’’ChineseupasWesternersregardinscrutable,unfathomable,andinexplicable.OnethewaysignificantelementmakingWesternimagesoftheinscrutableChineseisallChinesetalkandrespondinconversations.Chineseprefertotakespeech,relyingaroundthebushonindirectwayofsuggestiveorillustrativestatements,anddomuchmorebeatingthanWesternerstobeespeciallytheAmericans.CommunicationsinChineseenterprisestendadoptedthroughbemoreflexibleorevenvagueorambiguous;implicitcommunicationsaregenerallyCallcuesandindirection.Althoughthisimplicitwayofcommunicationsaveandembarrassmentforbothsides,itisconsideredtheasambiguousdishonestfromandWestempointtoofviewthisthatemphasizes‘‘clearness”,in‘‘certainty’’‘‘articulation'’.Duedifferencecommunication,andthemisunderstandingsandiswhyweseedisputesoftenOCCurinone’SSino—Westernbusinessinteractions.Thatlargedifferencebetweenownmannerofcommunicationother’Sfromthequestionnairesurvey.However,therecommunication.OntheonearedeepculturalrootsbehindChinesepeople’Sindirectwayofhand,ChinesecultureisonthehighendofHall’Scontinuumofhigh-messagesandlow-context.Ahigh-contextwhosemeaningsCallculturecommunicatesthroughimplicitbeinferredonlyfromthecontext.Similarly,ChinesearedefinedasbelongingtoacollectivisticcultureaccordingtoHofstede’Svaluedimensions.Personalinterdependence,groupinterestsandsocialharmonyareprioritizedoverpersonalautonomyandsatisfactionoftheneedsofthesellTherefore,Chinesepeopledonotseetheneedofstatingeverysinglemessageinoutspokenwordsorasmuchinformationhasalreadyexistedinthecontext.Theyonlyneedsuggestpointsandleavethelistenerhastoconveytoimplysomeonefigureouttherest.Thisworksespeciallywellwhenassomenegativemessagessuchintheasacaseofrefusal.Chinesepeoplerarelysay“no”directlybecausetheyregardthismayrefertoexternalfactorslikethreattogroupharmony.nleyfornottimelimits,companyregulationsasreasonsbeingexplicit.Ontheotherhand,Chinesepeoplepaygreatattentiontofaceconcerns.AsisstatedinthetheoreticalpartofChinesefacetheory,Chinesepeoplearealwaysface—giving,face—savingacceptanceconcemedwithandface—maintaining.ThisCananbeillustratedwiththecaseofandrefusalofoffer.InChina,peoplearesupposedtorefuseoneoranofferpolitelyseveraltimesbeforeacceptingit,i.e.therehastobetotwopolitetoandfro,showtheirrespectforthegiverandappreciationoftheoffer.Inthisway,theorrecipientgivesfullfacetothegiver,establishingmaintainingafriendlyrelationship.simplysayMeanwhile,ifyougetaninvitationbutdonotasawanttotakeit,youcannot‘'no’’becausethatisrenderedbluntslaponthehost’Sface.Chineseusuallythanktoattendbutthehostwhole—heartedlyfortheinvitationandexpresstheirwillingnessduetoexternalreasonslike‘‘Ihavepromisedtotakemyson/daughtertothethemetowrapup”,theycannotacceptpark'’,“Ihavesomeworkthoughtheyreallywantto.Inthisindirectway,bompartiesaresavedfromlosingfaceandrelationshipmaintained.4.2.2RelationshipIguanxiAsaculturevaluingcollectivism,Chinesepeopleonstressgroupharmonyandbasetheirpersonalidentitytheirgrouproles.Everyindividualisanelementofthegroupandwhosharecommonvalues,thinkingmodespeoplestandardsofbehaviors.Therefore,fromcollectivisticcultureshaveacleardistinctionbetweenin-groupsandamongthein—groupmemberswhichout-groups.Alargeandcomplicatednetworkexistsor49Canprovideinformation,facilitateprocesshelpskipredtapetrappingtheoutsiders.ThisnetworkiscalledguanxiinChina,whichhasbeenrecognizedandstudiedbyWesterners,bothinacademicworldandbusinessworld.AccordingtoaCanadiannegotiatorwhohadmorethansixyearsofbusinessnegotiationexperienceswithChinesepeople,‘‘itiscriticalthatyouhavesomeonewhohasguanxiworkthingsoutinaandknowhowtoChineseway”.HenotedintheinterviewthatwhendoingbusinessinChina,hepreferstohireanintermediarywhoknowsthecultureandthebusinessprocess,moreimportantly,whohasguanxiandcanhelpnavigatethebureaucracyintheDerivedfromthedependencerelationshipbuildingwhendoingonguanxi,Chinesepeopleputhighonvalueonbusiness.ThequestioninformalchattingisintendedtoshowChinesepreferenceofrelationshipbuildingtotaskaccomplishing.AstotheChinesepeople’S“complex”谢mrelationship,anAmericanbusinessmandescribes:EachtimeIgobacktoChina1wouldfeelembarrassedbecausesomeonewithwhomyouoncenegotiatedbuthaveforgottenwillgreetyouasifyouwereasaalonglongyoulostfriend.fnleywillactthoughyouhadaneverbeenaway.ItistruethatandhardnegotiationCanleaveyoudeepimpressionoftheothermantoandmightupgradehimtobeyourfriend.Butyouhaveamoveontootherthingsandyoucannotfieyourselfa11up、柝thparticularcase.However,theChineseseemtoexpectthatwhenyoucomebackagainyouremembereverythingaboutthemandstillbefriends.(Pye,1992,P.100)oftask-orientation,theymoveonDuetotheAmericans’tendencyquicklytothenextbusinessoncethepresentdealisclosed.Relationship、Ⅳitllthebusinesspartnersisendswiththeclosureofaonlytemporarycontractanddeal.Theynegotiateforabusinessratherthanpersonalrelationswithbusinesspartners.Theytendtoseparatepersonalemotionsandfeelingsfrombusiness.However,Chineseapeopletendtoviewwithmutualbusinessnegotiationasprocesstoestablishlong—termrelationshipasbeneficialgoals.Sot11eywillregardthebusinesspartnerspersonalMendsasoncemutualtrustisestablishedduringthenegotiationprocess,andgreetthemwhenmeetthemagain.oldfriendsNevertheless,theChinesecomplexonrelationshiphasmodifiedsomewhat50throughtheinteractions、析tllWesterners.Chineseusedtospendmuchtimeonthenon-tasksoundingstageinbusinessnegotiations.Duringthepreliminaryinteractions,theexchangeofpleasantriesorcasualtopicsasonweather,sports,foodorheadlinesinnewsisregardedbytheChineseprovidingopportunitiestosizeuptheircounterparts,todeterminingtheotherparty’Sreliabilityandwhetherformalong-termrelationship.ChinanowislessengagedinrelationshipbuildingthanotherEastAsiancountriesasisreflectedinthequestionnaireresponses.OneCanadianparticipantwhonegotiatedmainlywithcounterpartsfromChinaandSouthKoreaexplainedhischoiceofhowlongchatting,“BworksinChinabutCisneededinKoreawheretoknowoneisproperfortheinformalextratheyliketotakeeventimetogetanotherbeforebargaining.Thistorenewistrue,witllpeopleweknowastheystillliketotaketimeacquaintances”.4.2.3LanguageandCultureEconomic,scientificworldwideaandtechnologicalglobalizationculturalhasmadeEnglishthelinguafranca.PeoplefromdifferentorbackgroundsacquireEnglishasaresecondlanguageforeignlanguageandmostoftheinternationalbusinessesoneconductedinEnglish.However,languageisonlypartnotofaculture,thoughimportant.Tothebecapableofspeakingaforeignlanguagedoesnecessarilyguaranteeunderstandingoneofthatforeignculture.Thatiswhywhentheculturalgapiswide,evensuchasthethebetweenChinaandNorthAmerica,culturalbarriersremainafterlanguagebarrierhasbeenovercome.aMoreover,sometimesmasteringinterculturalforeignlanguageCanbemorepronetomiscommunicationthannotknowingthelanguageata11.Forinstance,fluentnon-nativespeakersofEnglishtendtocommitmoreseriousmiscommunicationabilities,thusproblems.Ontheonehand,theyareover-confidentintheironlanguageunderestimatingtheinfluencesofculturelanguage;meanwhile,theircounterpartstheir(non-native)languagefluency,thuswhoarenativespeakersmaybeimpressedbyassumingthattheyunderstandaswellthecultureembeddedinthelanguage.Therefore,miscommunicationlanguage,heoroccursoutofthepresumptionthatifoneisfluentinaforeignsheisfamiliar晰t11theculturewherethelanguageisused.Therefore,itdoesnotguaranteethesuccessofissafetosaythatlanguageefficiencycommunication.OneoftencffedcaseisofaChinesehostwhowantstoshowrespecttotheguestsbyrepeating‘、odaywehavenothinggoodtoeat!”ThislefttheconfusionwhentheywerefacingaWesternguestsintotal12一coursebanquet.canLackofculturalandhistoricalbackgroundsleadtodifficultyinunderstandingnationalcertainconcepts.Forexample,inahierarchicalsocietylikeChina,thegovernmentisofsupremepowerwhoseauthorityis“lobby”,topersuadethedecision—makingauthorityunchallengeable,thusthewordtopassalawordoaparticularthingusuallytothebenefitofaparticulargroup,isunthinkabletoChinese.WhilelobbyinginthesenateortheHouseofcaseRepresentativesisacommonpracticeintheUnitedStates.Thisshowsthatthesamewordmayhavedifferentconnotationalmeaningsinnotdifferentculturesandknowingtheliteralmeaningalonedoesusageoftheword.YouaresafeguaranteetheproperallandmaybedelightedlyacceptedifyousaytoAmerican,‘‘Youaresentencetoathetopdog”.ButyouwilloffendothersifyousaythesalneChinese.Thedifferenceliesinculture.Americansperceivedogasinthearetheproverb“Youluckyadog”,butChineseseedogsasdemeaninganddegradingwhenusingtheimageforperson.ofChinesenegotiatorswhomadewittyuseHowever,thereconnectionbetweenarecasesofthelanguageandculturewhileapersuadingatthenegotiatingtable.Oneanegotiatorinterviewedtoldheofferedthepersonalstory.IntoughnegotiationwiththeAmericans,Chineseside’Spriceandjustifieditwithreasonableanddetailedreasoning.Sohepaused,laybackexplanation,buttheAmericansseemedanottobuyhisbitandsaid,“ChinesepeopleeatmoreporkwhileAmericanseatmorebeef,isn’tthisandsaid,eatingtrue?”theAmericanswereatjustalossbutnodded.ThisChinesenegotiatorsmiled“Soismystatementnow.”inthiscase,theChinesenegotiatortookathehabitsofthetwocountriesasmetaphoLtostatethatwhathesaidinhisreasoningwasjustastrueasthefactthatChineseeatmoreporkandAmericansmorebee£52ChapterFiveCONCLUSIONInthischapter,theauthorfirstSWYISupthepresentresearchonmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiations,andthenproposessomeadvicefornegotiationpractitionersorpotentialnegotiatorsintheinterculturalcontext.Finally,theauthorreflectsuponthelimitationsofthepresentresearchandofferssuggestionsforfurtherresearch.5.1MajorFindingsAfterconductingaquestionnairesurveyandanalyzingthestatisticalresultswiththehelpofrelatedtheories,andparticularlythroughthefollow-upinterviewswithsomearespondents,theauthorachievedbetterunderstandingofthemiscommunicationproblemsininterculturalbusinessnegofimion.Cultureaffectsthewaypeopleviewandinterpretthemanysocialinteractionsembeddedinnegotimiontactics,arrangements,anddraftinganagreement.Therefore,notdiscussionsininternationalnegotiationsmatters,suchasarefrequentlyimpededorbytechnicalnotunderstandingthebusinessunqualifiedproducts,butbecausethetwonegotiatingpartiesadoptdifferentwaysofcommunicating.Theymaypursuedifferentpathsoflogicormaysometimesevenunintentionallyhumiliating.misleadtheotherpartythroughbehaviorsthatseemdisrespectfulorevenThroughthepresentresearch,theauthorcomparedtheresponsesbetweenWesternandChinesenegotiatorsthroughdatacollectionandatChapterTwoanalysis,andarenotedthatsomehypothesesproposedareverifiedwhilesomenot.Fromthestatisticaldata,theresearcherfoundthatbothgroupsassignedhighmarksontheculturaldifferencesaspossiblecausesofmiscommunicationininterculturalbusinessnegotiations,whichverifiedHypothesisThree.However,thedata53collectedshowthatWesternparticipantsspentmoretimeoninformalchattingbeforestartingtonegotiate,notverystrictlyfollowthepresetschedule,whichisdivergentfromprevioustheoreticalpredictions.InaddressingH2,theauthormaintainsthatthoughChineseparticipantarefromP-timecultureandWestemersM.timculture,intemationalpracticesandinteractionshavemodifiedtheirtendencytowardtimeissues.Furthermore,theempiricaldatafromtheChineseparticipantsonquestionnaireresponsesonshowthataveragepreferarethoughslightly,tobasetheirtrustinlawsandwrittenagreements,andinclinedtoadoptalogicwayofpersuasion,bothofwhichareagainsttheoreticalprediction.However,bothChineseandWesternparticipantsagree,asisreflectedintheirquestionnaireresponsesthatChinesearemoreindirectandWesternersmoredirect.Moreover,thisdifferencereportedtobeainmannerofcommunicationishighlypossiblecauseofmiscommunication.Therefore,theauthoronconcludesH4as"Chinesestillemphasizemaintaininggoodrelationships、航mbusinesspartnersbutmodifieditinbusinessnegotiationsinaccordancewiththeintemationalbusinessattentionfield.AsismentionedinChapterTwo,cultureisdynamic.Culturalvaluespractices.Meanwhile,peoplefromtheWestarepayingmoretrendinbusinessnegotiationtorelationshipbuildingasaresultofthewin—winandbeliefskeepspreadingintootherculturesandbeinginfusedwimvaluesandbeliefsfromothercultures.WithChinesemoreandbusinessesgoingglobalpeoplehavetoandforeignenterprisesenteringChina,moreChinesearebecomingWesternizedandandmianziinWesternersChina,and”Chinese-ized”.Westemersthey’veacknowledgedguanxiadjustedthemselvestheChinesewayofdoingbusiness.Meanwhile,experiencedChinesenegotiatorshaveadoptedtheinternationalstandardsandpracticesofbusinessnegotiationsandrespondingChinesedivergencetosomeextent,modifiedtheChineseway.Asaresult,theinthepresentresearchreportedoraandWesternparticipantssmallerthanpredictedinpreviousstudiesatheories,insurveyeditemslikefrequencyofbringingInlawyer,attitudetowardspresetscheduleetc.summary,theauthorconcludes54that,whileculturaldifferencesareafundamentalbothculturescauseofmiscommunicationincross-bordernegotiations,anevolutioninnuancesisoccurring:eachisabsorbingcertainculturaloveroftheotherthroughinterculturalinteractiveexperiences.Thoughinterculturaldifferenceswilltime,thisabsorptionofaidbothpartiesinreducingmiscommunication,thereduced,willalwaysfundamentaldifferencesandconsequentmiscommunication,whilebeafactor.Therefore,thereisalwaysneedforinternationalnegotiatorstostayawareofSOasculturaldifferencestominimizeanyresultingmiscommunication.5.2AdviceforInterculturalBusinessNegotiatorsInthissection,theauthorattempttooffersomeadvicetonegotiationpractitionersorfuturenegotiatorsontheinternationalstage.First,negotiatorsshouldcultivateculturalawareness.Whennegotiatingwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures,negotiatorsshouldbecautiousofanymiscommunicationcausedbyculturaldifferences.Insteadofoverlookingnegotiatorsshouldrespecttheother’Sshouldorignoringculturalinfluences,culture.Whennegotiatinginanotherculture,theyisthosepeoplethatunderstandhowcultureaadjusttotheotherculture’Scustoms,ritualsandceremonies.AssuggestedbyGelfandandChristakopoulou(1999),“Itnegotiationthatwillhaveinfluencescompetitiveadvantageintoday’Sglobalmarketplace”(asiscitedinImai,2007,p.1)Second,thoughcultureimpactsalmosteverystageofthenegotiationprocess,personalattributesalsonotbestereotypedcountinshapingthewaypeoplenegotiate.Therefore,weshouldbutkeepflexibilityinmindwhennegotiatingwithpeoplefromothercultures.AsmoreandmoreChinesenegotiatorSarelearningadvancedmanagementtheoriesandnegotiatingskillsfromtheWest,theyareinaadjustingtheirnegotiationstylesnotaccordance埘tllawidely-acceptedinternationalstandard.ItisuncommontofmdChinesenegotiatorstickingfirmlytohispointandpersuadingpersistentlywithhardasfacts,whichisdescribedthetypicalWesternwayofpersuasionintextbooks.areMeanwhile,businesspeoplefromtheWestChinesewayofdoingbusiness.Forgettingmoreandmorefamiliarwithatheaexample,theyatmayproposetoasttomutually。beneficialandlong-lastingfriendship55thewelcomedinnerwheretheymeettheirChinesepartnersforthefirsttime.Third,practicaladviceonefficientcommunicationcanalwayshelpreducetheorchancesInthisofmiscommunication,whetherittakesplaceintraculturallyregard,activelisteninginterculturally.Canbeusefulincheckingmiscommunication.Negotiatorsshouldconfirmiftheyunderstandcorrectlywhattheotherpartyintendtoexpressbyrepeatingwhatmeyhear.Especiallyinthesituationwherewordsareuseddifferentlyamongdifferentculturalgroups,activelisteningCanhelppreventmisunderstandings.Finally,companiesthatconductbusinesstrainingonacrossbordersshouldprovidespecialcross—culturalknowledge.Thisdoesonnothavetocoverallworldculturesbuttohelpshouldfocusthecultureswithwhomthecompanydeals.Thepointisasenseemployeesestablish“culturaltraps'’.ofculturalawarenessandkeeptheminformedofsome5.3LimitationsofthepresentresearchDuetotimeconstraintsandtheauthor’Sacademicexperience,thepresentresearchislimitedinthefollowingways.First,duetotheauthor’Slackofreal—lifeexperienceinbusinessnegotiations,somenotclearlyphraseditemsinthequestionnairewererespondents.Fornegotiationand,therefore,causeddefinespecificallyconfusiontobusinessinstance,theauthordidnotwhatmeans,sosomerespondentscouldnotdecidewhichanswertochooseforonthequeStion:”Howmuchtimeyouusuallyspentbusinessintheirnotainformalchattingbeforegeeingtonegotiation.'?'’Respondentsnotedthatdifferenttypesofnegotiationsandwitllthenegotiatingpartieswouldaffecttheirchoice.Theauthordidfamiliarityanticipatesuchmatterswhendesigningthequestionnaire.accessSecond,becauseoflimitedtobusinesspeoplesizeisnotaswhoareexperiencedinasinterculturalbusinessnegotiation,thesamplerepresentativetoincludebusinessnegotiatorsfromvariousindustriesandsizesofcompanies,withdifferentyearsofinternationalnegotiatingexperiences.Finally,inthepresentresearch,theauthorproposedsomepossiblesourcesofmiscommunicationinthesurveyandhadparticipantsassignmarkstorepresenttheimportanceofthosesources.However,theauthordidnothaveanyreal-lifenegotiatingexperiencesthusthereal.1ifesituations.5.4SuggestionsforfurtherresearchForfurtherresearchdirections.Firstiscasesourcesproposedmightbepresumptuousandnotreflecttheintothisarea,theauthorsuggeststhefollowingthreestudythroughqualitativemethodssuchasin-depthinterviewswitllinternationalnegotiators.Thismethodcouldexploredetaileddescriptionsoftheasmiscommunication,theirconsequences,aswellreasonsgivenbytheparticipantsandtheirresultingadaptations.ThentheresearchersCananalyzeCanthecaseinthelightofrelevanttheories.Thesecasesandrelatedanalysesprovidefuturenegotiatorsdirectionsandsuggestionswithpersuasiveargumems.Secondisextensiveresearchtoexploretheunderyears’ofinfluencefromthechangesinChinesebusinesspracticesWestsincetheopening—upthreedecadesago.asThirdistheextensionoftheresearchscopeintoculturessuchthosefromSouthAmericaortheMiddleEast,inaccordancewiththedevelopmentofbusinesspracticesbetweenChinaandcountriesintheseregions.57REFERENCES孙亚,误解与言语行为转喻,外语教学,2007,第28卷第3期。彭增安,张少云,话语误解的语境成因,中州学刊(4),2008。周利娟,从认知角度看交际中的误解,外语学刊(3),2003,PP.48-51。Blunden,S.,“ResearchingtheExplanatoryPowerMale/FemaleMiscommunication:AnAttemptoftheTwoCulturesApproachtotoIncreaseMale/FemaleMiscommunication'’,Thesis(B.A.(Hons.)),MacquarieUniversity,1993.Bohling,K.,‘‘AirlineTransportationandMiscommunication:ADeadlyCombination'’,Thesis似.A.),StateUniversityofNewY0rkCollegeatBrockport,1992.Brewer,E.C.&Terence,L.H.,“ObfuscatingtheObvious:MiscommunicationIssuesintheInterpretationofCommonTerms”,JournalofBusinessCommunication46,PE480,2009.Connor-Linton,J.,“CompetingCommunicativeStylesandCrosstalk:AMulti.FeatureAnalysis”,LanguageinSociety28(1),PP.25.56,1999.Contractors’PerceptionsofEachOther”,Gainesville,Devier,C.J.,“Designers’andFla.:UniversityofFlorida,2007.Fan,Lili.,“TheImpactsVariablesofCulturalDifferencesonCross.CulturalNegotiationofinSino—USBusinessNegotiations”,Thesis(M.A.),UniversityInternationalBusinessandEconomics,2005.Fang,T.,&Faure,GO.,“ChineseCommunicationCharacteristics:AYinYangPerspective”,InternationalJournalofInterculturalRelations,2010.Ferrad{is,C.A:,“CommunicationProcessesinADevelopmentHydroelectricYork,1990.Hall.E.T.,BeyondCulture,GardenProject:TheYacyretaofNewDam,Misiones,Argentina'’,Thesis(Ph.D.),CityUniversityCity,NY.AnchorDoubleday,1977.UseinFace—To-FaceHancock,J.T.,“VerbalIronyandComputer-MediatedConversations',,JournalofLanguageandSocialPsychology23,PP.447,2004。Hoebel,E.A.&FrostE.L.,CultureandSocialAnthropology,NewYork:McGraw—Hill,1976.Hofstede,G,Culturesand1991.Organizations:SoftwareoftheMind,McGRAW-HILL,Hofstede,G,&Usunier,J.C.(1996),“Hofstede’Sdimensionsinfluenceonofcultureandtheirinternationalbusinessnegotiation”,Internationalbusinessnegotiations,PE119—129.Oxford:Pergamon。Holguin,B.&Felipe,J.,‘‘UnderstandingtotheRoleofCulturalofDifferences:anApproachBusinessNegotiationsInThePeople’SRepublicChina'’,Thetis(LL.M.),HarvardLawSchool,2010.Howard,J.W.,“ToweralnIClearedtoLand?”:Pilot・ATC(Mis)Communication'’,Thesis(Ph.D.),BowlingGreenStateUniversity,2003.Huang,Yimiao.,HowCulturalDifferencesInfluenceBusinessNegotiationStrategies.Thesis(M.A。),2006.Imai,R.,TheCulturallyIntelligentNegotiator:TheImpactofCQonInterculturalatNegotiationEffectiveness,PsychologyThesesandDissertations,DigitalRepositorytheUniversityofMaryland,2007.Jackson,R.,SuccessfulNegotiationinInternationalViolentConflict,JournalofPeachResearch37,PP.323—343,2000.Jacobsen,JanetL.,MiscommunicationinMale/FemalConversations,Thesis(Ph.D.),ArizonaStateUniversity,2005.Kandathil,GM.,‘'NegofimingTechnologyEnterpriseFrames:ConstructinginSouth10.ACross—CulturalResourcePlannin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jobtitlesWhendoyouusuallyworkoutawrittenagreement?A.DuringthenegofimionB.AfterthenegotiationIfwedividenegotiationintofourperiods,duringwhichlikelytooccur?onemiscommunicationismostA.Non—tasksounding(preliminarytalksB.Task—relatedexchangeofinformationontopicsotherthanbusinessspecifics)C.PersuasionD.ConcessionandagreementWhatmanner1ofcommunicationsdoyouprefer?23456DirectindirectHowdoyouusuallyperceivetheotherparty’Smannerofcommunications?1Direct2345indirect6Whatisyourattitudetowardtheschedule1Strictly23setbeforethenegotiation?45to6follow———————————————_flexible,accordingthesituationWhatwouldyoufeeliftheotherpartyislateforthenegotiation?1Nota23456nottrustworthybigdeal———————————————————————◆theotherpartyisWheredoyoubase1Laws2trustinanegotiation?3456andwrittenagreement——————————————————_.卜friendshipwiththeotherpartyHowdoyouperceivethenatureofpersuasionin123anegotiation?5logical64EmotionalHowfrequentlywouldyourteambring1Never2rarelyaalawyertothenegotiationtable?34contract5alwaysonlywhendiscussingdetailsinlawyer,inwhatsituationorusuallyorIfyoudobringwhatrolewouldhesheplay?Doyouminkthefollowingfactorscancausemiscommunicationininterculturaltheseriousnessofeachfactor.businessnegotiation?Markanumber(0-4)toshow(0meansnoinfluence;4meansgreatinfluence)fluencyofthenegotiatorsbackgroundlegaltraining,knowledgeaboutthebusinessspecifics1)Language2)Educational3)Technicalskills(suchas4)Socialskillsetc.)oftheetc.)negotiators(1ikeattentivelistening,conflictmanagement5)Differencesincultural,politicalandhistoricalbackgrounds6、Perceptionoftime(dodeadlineoronethingormanythingsatonetime;relyonschedulesandchangeaccordingtosituationsasandpersons)7)Businessetiquettesuchformaldress,name—cardexchange,andaddress——negotiators8)Decision-makingpowerofthe9)Mannersofcommunication(directandindirect)10)Perceptionoftypesof1issues(task-orientedorrelationshiporiented)1)Non-verbalbehaviorssuchasfacialexpressionsandgesturescause12)Otherfactorsaccordingtoyourexperiencethatmightmiscommunication,pleasenamethem.TheendThankyouforyourparticipation165APPENDIXIICHINESEQUESTIONNAIRE敬爱的先生/女士:您好!这是一份学术论文调查问卷,旨在探寻跨文化商务谈判中的沟通失误问题。为了调查结果的真实性,恳请按实际情况填写以下各项。鉴于学术需要,本问卷研究的对象是中方和来自英语国家的谈判队伍。本问卷的信息只用作学术研究目的,以匿名方式保护参与者的个人信息,并将对问卷结果保密。如果您对学术本次学术研究的结果感兴趣(即,跨文化商务谈判中会有哪些沟通失误现象,产生的原因是什么),请留下您的邮箱,研究人员将会将数据结果发送给您,希望本研究结果能对我国涉外谈判人员的实践有一定的帮助。。l生另,J-.....................................................................................——到目前为止,您从事跨文化商务谈判有多少年了?英语水平(选出一个数字):12345(1表示“几乎不会”,5表示“可以用英语作为工作语言”)您参加的谈判中,您方谈判队伍带翻译的频率如何吗?123456从不—————————————————◆经常如果带翻译,原因是什么?——A.语言沟通需要B.谈判规格高,需要翻译C.用翻译给己方更多考虑的时问在进入谈判正题之前,一般会有多长时间的非正式交流时间(寒暄)?A.少于10分钟B.10到30分钟C.超过30分钟一般寒暄的话题都有哪些?贵公司一般是如何选定谈判人员的?(可多选)A.专业技能,对业务的熟悉度B.在公司的职务或者职位C.匹配对方谈判队伍的人员构成谈判中,一般什么时候能够达成一份书面的协议?——A.谈判过程中B.正式谈判结束之后如果我们把谈判分成四个阶段,在以下哪一个阶段,您认为最容易发生沟通误解?(可多选)A.不涉及具体事务的初始接触B.跟谈判具体事务相关的信息交换C.双方互相说服的过程D.妥协和达成协议的过程在沟通方式方面您更偏向于?123456直接—————————————————◆不直接据您观察,对方谈判人员一般更趋向于哪种沟通方式?直接———————————————_1234123456不直接您对待事先拟定好的谈判流程和时间安排的态度是56严格执行———————————◆根据谈判开始后的具体情况灵活调整如果对方谈判人员迟到了,您会怎么想?1不介意,谈判照常进行—————_6723456觉得对方不重视谈判,不可信谈判中,您更倾向于如何建立对对方的信任?123456法律和书面文件的保障——————◆和对方的交情您觉得跨文化谈判当中,双方互相说服过程的实质更接近于?动之以情————————————_123l23456晓之以理贵公司进行跨文化谈判时,带专业律师或法律顾问的频率如何?——45从不很少只有讨论具体的合同条款时经常总是如果贵公司会带律师参加谈判,通常是在什么情况下,律师起什么作用?对于以下各项,根据您的跨文化谈判经历,它们会造成双方沟通的失误吗?如果会,具体影响有多大?请从O.4中选一个数字表示各项的影响程度,0表示“没有影响",4表示“影响很大”,数字越大表示影响越大。1)谈判人员的外语熟练度2)谈判人员的教育程度3)专业技能,比如谈判技巧,对业务的熟悉度等——4)社交技巧,比如人际沟通能力,倾听和提问的艺术——5)谈判人员可以当场做决定的权限6)谈判双方在政治制度、文化和历史方面的差异7)对时间的态度(比如中国人喜欢先花时间建立双方的友谊再开始谈判,而北美人认为这是浪费时间,更喜欢直接进入谈判具体事项)8)谈判礼仪,如着装,交换名片,如何称呼对方9)沟通的方式(直接还是委婉)lo)对谈判实质的理解(完成具体任务还是以建立双方的长久合作关系)11)非言语行为(如表情,肢体语言等)121根据您的谈判经历,还有哪些因素也会导致谈判双方误解的产生?问卷内容到处结束。谢谢您的参与合作!个人简历严倩,女,1986年11月05日生。2006年至2010年,就读于对外经济贸易大学英语学院,主修英语专业,获文学学士。2010年至2012年,就读于对外经济贸易大学英语学院,攻读外国语言学与应用语言学专业,跨文化商务交际方向。中西方商务谈判中的沟通失误问题研究

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严倩

对外经济贸易大学

引用本文格式:严倩 中西方商务谈判中的沟通失误问题研究[学位论文]硕士 2012

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