Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about linguistics as the science of language
Focal points: design features; functions of language
Teaching difficulties: design features; important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedure： Outline of this chapter:
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1 Why study language? 2 What is language? 3 Design features of language 3.1 Arbitrariness
3.1.1 concept 3.1.2 two levels
3.1.3 Arbitrariness and convention 3.2 Duality二重性 3.2.1 concept 3.2.2 two levels 3.2.3 advantages 3.3 Creativity创造性 3.3 .1 concept 3.3 .2 two senses 3.4 Displacement移位性 3.4.1 concept 3.4.2 three senses
4 Origin of language语言的起源 4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论 4.1.1 arguments 4.1.2 evidence 4.1.3 problem
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4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论
4.2.1 arguments 4.2.2 evidence 4.2.3 problem
4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论
4.3.1 arguments 4.3.2 evidence 4.3.3 problem
5 Functions of language语言的功能 5.1 schools
5.1.1 the Prague School 5.1.2 the London School 5.2 Functions of language 6 What is linguistics? p14 7 Main branches of linguistics 8 Macrolinguistics
9 Some important distinctions in linguistics
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1 Why study language?
Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be a worthy subject for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subject in and of itself. However, if you pause and think of the following myths about language, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really understand the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.
The following are some fundamental views about LANGUAGE, which you may instinctively agree without having thought about the reasons,or you may not agree at the moment. Follow this course and you will find they are discussed in more detail in the ensuing chapters.
1）．Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.
2）．Language operates by rules.
3). All languages have three major components; a sound system, a system
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of lexico-grammar and a system of semantics. 4)．Everyone speaks a dialect. 5)．Language slowly changes.
6)．Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.
7)．Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals that use them.
8)．Writing is derivative of speech.
Some people find the subject of language intriguing and useful for many different reasons. Language can be used as a way of finding out more about how the brain works, or how damage to the brain results in certain kind of language disorders, how children learn language, how people learn and teach different languages, what the relationship between meaning and perception is, what the role of language is different cultures, why people use different varieties of language, why there are linguistic differences between different groups, and how scientists make the computer work in a more human-like manner. This course book will serve as a starting point from which you may go on researching in one of the above and other language-related fields.
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2 What is language?
Webster‘s New World Dictionary offers several most frequently used senses of the word ―language‖, namely,
Language is human speech; the ability to communicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written representation of such a system. (Webster's New World Dictionary)
Most widely accepted definition of language is that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of speech community communicate , interact and transmit their culture.
3 Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called DFESIGN FEATURES. The following are the frequently discussed ones. 3.1 Arbitrariness 3.1.1 concept
The widely accepted meaning of this feature, which was discussed by Saussure, first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
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For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. However there seems to be different levels of ARBITRARINESS. 3.1.2 two levels
1) Word level: Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.
（1）we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. （2）And we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / in English ,书 in Chinese .
You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe. e.g. In Chinese, these linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwangwang in Chinese.
2) Sentence level: Less arbitrariness at the syntactic level
According to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.
（1）By syntax we refer to the ways that sentences are constructed
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according to the grammar of arrangement. We know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules.
(2)And there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.
In other words, syntax(sentence) is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as this kind of order is concerned. Compare the sentence at P5:
When we say (a) we refer to the sequence of actions; if we say (b) the readers will take it as meaning the opposite sequence of real happenings—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In (c) with the help of the word ―after‖ we can reverse the order of the clauses. Therefore the functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin and bin, or fish and dish.
3.1.3 Arbitrariness and convention
What then is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? It is a matter of CONVENTION. Here we have to look at the other side of the coin of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality.
(1)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.
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(2)And conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is the conventionality of a language that is more worth noticing that its arbitrariness. 3.2 Duality二重性 3.2.1 concept
―By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization‖ (Lyons, 1982:20)
3.2.2 two levels
1）primary level （words）
We call sounds here secondary elements as opposed to such primary units as words which convey meaning in them and have distinct and identifiable meaning, which are made up of the secondary level.
2) secondary level (sounds)
Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds, which do not convey meaning in them. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.
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3.2.3 advantages
Now we can perceive the advantage of duality, which lies in the great productive power our language, is endowed with. 1)Countless words can be formed out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And 2)the huge number of words can be combined together to form endless number of sentences, 3)which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.
3.3 Creativity创造性 3.3 .1 concept
By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. 3.3 .2 two senses 1) duality
The creativity of language partly originates from its duality which we just discussed in the above section, namely, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. 2) recursive nature
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Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for this possibility. For instance, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly: Eg:
He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who… 3.4 Displacement移位性 3.4.1 concept
DISPLACEMENT means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3.4.2 three senses
1) Our language enables us to describe things in the past, now and in the future.
2) Our language also enables us to communicate about things that don‘t exist or don‘t yet exist.
3) Our language also makes it possible for us to talk and think in
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abstract terms.
4 Origin of language语言的起源
4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论 4.1.1 arguments
1) In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and 2) Speech developed from that. 4.1.2 evidence
Onomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. 4.1.3 problem
But in our discussion we can find they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. This theory lacks supportive evidence.
4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论 4.2.1 arguments
1) In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.
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2) And speech developed from that. 4.2.2 evidence
As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections. 4.2.3 problem
What makes the theory problematic is that there is only limited number of interjections in almost all languages. Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, aiyo bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence. 4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论 4.3.1 arguments
1) As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts .
2) They gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.3.2 evidence
We do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages. 4.3.3 problem
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Rhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.
5 Functions of language语言的功能
5.1 schools
Linguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people, etc, they summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language like the following:
5.1.1 the Prague School
1) representative: Jacobson.
2) Arguments: 6 functions, based on the key elements of communication, namely: referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), cognitive (to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties), phatic (to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intentions, words and meanings). 5.1.2 the London School
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1) representative: Halliday
2) arguments: 3 functions. He proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL, INTERPRESONAL and TEXTUAL functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context (Halliday, 1994)
5.2 Functions of language 5.2.1 Informative信息功能
For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.
1) Language is the instrument of thought .
2) Language is used to record the facts, which is a perquisite of social development.
It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar:
1)Halliday notes that ―Language serves for the expression of ‗content‘: that is, of the speaker‘s experience of the real world, including the inner
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world of his own consciousness.
2)In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us.‖ (in Lyons, 1970, p.142-3) 5.2.2 Interpersonal function人际功能
By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function,
1）by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. 2) Language serves to establish and maintain social rules.
3) Language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality.
4）Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.( Language also serves in the expression of identity)
5.2.3 Performative施为功能
This concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backbone
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of pragmatics. (see section 8.1 below)
1) The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. 2)The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.
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5.2.4 Emotive function感情功能
According to some investigations, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication (Nida, 1998:17).
1) It is a means of changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
2) It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy According to David Crystal (1992: 17).
When we are under stress, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery can relax us; conventional words / phrases, e.g. God, My, Dam it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow…can do so ,too
It is also discussed under the term expressive function:
1)The expressive function can often by entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.
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2)Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another‘s expressive use of language to show their solidarity.
(Nida, 1998:21)The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. 5.2.5 Phatic communion交感性谈话
The term PHATIC COMMUNION originates from Malinowsky‘s study of the functions of language performed by Trobiand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language,
1) We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.
2) Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.
We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects if
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they are to interact comfortably with different people.
1) It is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language.
5.2.6 Recreational function娱乐性功能
If you observe children‘s play, you will find the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in it.
2) Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. For instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. We are getting very close here to Jacobson‘s poetic function.
5.2.7 Metal lingual function元语言功能 1) Our language can be used to talk about itself. P 13 2) This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive.
6 What is linguistics?什么是语言
p14
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7 Main branches of linguistics
Phonetics the production of speech,
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure ,the sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
Morphology the internal organization of words, the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation process.
Syntax principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences
Semantics How meaning is encoded in a language Pragmatics the study of meaning in context.
8 Macrolinguistics
Psycholinguistics the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition
Sociolinguistics the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users.
Anthropological linguistics the history and structure of unwritten languages
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Computational linguistics the use of computer to process or produce human language
9 Some important distinctions in linguistics
9.1 Prescriptive & descriptive 规定性研究和描述性研究：前者总结语言中的标准，后者着重分析语言中的事实。
1) Descriptive describes how things are while prescriptive prescribes how things ought to be.
2) Prescriptive study aims to lay down rules for ―correct‖ use of language while descriptive tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform. To sum up, P20.
9.2 Synchronic & diachronic 共时研究与历时研究：前者研究某个特定时期的语言，后者研究语言各个阶段的发展变化。
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1) Synchronic study of language refers to the description of a language at some point in time.
2) The description of a language as it changes through time is diachronic study. It studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
e.g. a. the features of English used in Shakespeare‘s time－Synchronic b. the study of the changes English has undergone since then－Diachronic
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.
9.3 Langue & parole 语言和言语：前者指语言系统的整体，后者指某个个体在世界语言使用环境中说出的具体的话语。
Langue vs. parole is a distinction made by Swiss linguist Saussure. Langue and parole are French words.
1)Langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker while parole the actual phenomenon or data of utterances.
2)Langue is the storehouse filled by the members of a given community while Parole refers to their actives use of speaking.
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To sum up, p21
9.4 Competence vs. performance 前者指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备，后者指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用。
It is a distinction made by Americans linguist Noam Chomsky in 1950‘s. 1)Competence refers to a language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language. That is the ability all native speakers have of being able to understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.
2)Performance is the actual use of language in correct situation. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.
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